Literature Review
Literature Review
Automobile is an essential means for social and economic mobility. Cars in particular have brought convenience and transportation benefits and became a significant symbol of culture, innovation, and progress. However, the proliferation of cars presents several opportunities for criminal activities such as theft. Key cities in the United States are experiencing high prevalence if car theft cases and among the regions with the highest rate of cars stolen is the Dallas Country in Texas. Due to the imminent increase in car theft cases in the area, local law enforcement units are finding more effective anti-car theft solutions and preventive measures. The urgency in addressing the problem of car theft in Dallas County was due to the heightened campaigns of the local government along with other Federal agencies in combating theft crimes. It is apparent that car-theft is among the serious crime issues in Dallas because professional car thieves in the area have the ability to easily steal average car models according to Arrington (2006).
Arrington (2006) discussed the premise leading to the increase in car-theft cases in the United States in general. Most of car-theft incidents were not perpetrated by professional thieves, but rather of opportunists that are usually bystanders looking for the opportunity to hop into other’s car without warning (Arrington, 2006, p. 64). Therefore, most of the law enforcement efforts were geared towards eliminating the opportunities and diversifying the targets from professional thieves to ordinary citizens with stealing intentions. However, determination of whom among the non-professional thieves to be targeted is a challenge because law enforcers cannot randomly monitor individuals on the grounds of suspicion, as it will infer violation of privacy and unlawful surveillance. Similar challenges of deterring car thieves and determining arrest targets led to the remodeling of crime prevention applications, which includes employment of available technologies, programs, and detection technique (Arrington, 2006, p. 64).
Employing the use of detection and automatic security mechanisms in vehicles greatly impact the risk of cars being stolen due to denied access, delay, and removal of rewards for using the vehicle from car thieves (Arrington, 2006). Law enforcement agencies outlined programs that include educating car owners in using preventive techniques, increasing difficulty of access to the vehicle, and quick recovery (Arrington, 2006, p. 65). The wide use of security devices installed in cars eliminates the present opportunity for car thieves from stealing the vehicle. Steering collars locks, Audible alarms, wheel locks, window etching, window locks, and smart keys are considered as first layer measures to theft prevention encouraged by law enforcement agencies (Arrington, 2006. p. 65). High-end vehicles are often installed with more advanced security systems that eliminate the chance for car thieves from stealing the vehicle. Voice recognition, remote alert and other biometric systems further enhances the security level installed in vehicles, which in return eliminates the chance of the car being stolen.
These approaches are considered as vital innovative efforts of the public in protecting their vehicles from being stolen. On the other hand, law enforcement agencies both local and federal are also trying to incorporate the same approach in their efforts of reducing car-theft cases particularly in the Dallas area. However, not all approach delivers the same level of positive outcomes. For example, car crime prevention through publicity is unlikely to have significant impact in deterring car thieves from stealing vehicles. Efforts such as randomly posting advertisements, public announcement, and posters telling the residents to lock their cars is less effective due to lack of definite security measure other than conveying reminders (Barthe, 2004). According to Barthe (2004) if police authorities will rely on publicity to insinuate prevention campaigns, such publicity should compliment the overall law enforcement initiative. However, law enforcement should be wary of relying on publicity in combating car-theft because publicity alone encompasses very little success. Campaigns meant to deter offenders without concrete program to reinforce the initiative are no more than just crying wolf. Moreover, the approach will only deteriorate the existing police-community relations due marginal outcomes in crime reduction (Barthe, 2004).
Mounting a publicity campaign should consider careful analysis of the crime problem itself. For example, if theft statistics analysis indicates that information drive would render the most benefit, then it would be feasible to rely on publicity. Barthe’s (2004) article pointed out that law enforcement agencies should undertake publicity campaigns only to convey the broad context of the response to the problem. Publicity campaigns should target both the offenders and the potential victims. Based on the nature of the problem, In addition, publicity campaigns should also be aligned with the nature of the problem. On the issue of car-theft, campaigns had to be specific about the information pertaining to prevention, agency to contact, and other security advice (Barthe, 2004). On the other hand, the same campaign should also encompass the dual approach in terms of conveying strict apprehensions would rather be more effective. Meaning, the approach should simultaneously insinuate reduction of theft and victimization and deter offenders at the same time.
The same tactic is also being integrated to car-theft prevention initiatives in Dallas, Texas and with the help of effective campaign paired with aggressive law enforcement tactics and improved technology, the number of car-theft cases in the county have significantly plummeted (Crawford, 2011). The article in Dallas News by Crawford (2011) indicates the significant effect of intensified law enforcement and applied techniques in reducing car-theft. The introduction of technological tools in combating car-theft in Dallas contributed to at least 200% decline in car-theft cases. According to Crawford (2011), the total number of car-theft incidents in Dallas reached about 25,083 annually, but the use of bait cars and the technology behind it dropped the numbers to only 8,384 by 2010. This development reflects the efficacy of the approach particularly in combining information drive use of bait cars (Crawford, 2011). In addition, the continuous effort in Dallas resulted to a consistent annual decrease 9% in total car-theft cases.
Auto detectives in Dallas believe that the success of the campaign against car-theft in the area was due to the continuous development on a number of tactical approaches such as the use of LoJack, OnStar, proactive policing, and well-informed public. Crawford (2011) also mentioned about a common police practice, which was adopted by other police department across different States. Law enforcers are requiring citizens to report theft and have an affidavit signed by the complainant in order for police to determine whether the vehicle was indeed stolen or the other way around. Despite the successful developments in combating car-theft in Dallas with the help of technology and vigilant attitude of the citizens, the problem ceases to decease due to the adjustments that car thieves are making in their own tactics. Towing services are being used as accomplices to the crime and or sometimes the thief uses tow trucks targeting apartment complex and pullout vehicles from the parking lot in the middle of the night (Crawford, 2011).
According to Ernst (2011), car-theft is now not only limited to stealing the car itself, but also its components such as wheels and or sometimes the catalytic converter. In a Dallas GMC dealer, full-size 20-inch wheels of Sierra and Yukon pick-ups were also recently became the target of thieves car thieves (Ernst, 2011). The owner of the dealership Robert Bobo stated that at least 30 sets or 140 wheels were stolen from the showroom, which sets the highest record of stolen wheels at one time in a single location. This kind of car related theft problem had left the authorities to respond with new strategies to prevent similar incidents from re-occurring (Ernst, 2011). One of the concepts brought up in addressing similar problems is to intensify and employ more advanced approach and one of which is the concept introduced by Henderson, which is the use of Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) to deny thieves of access to roads (Henderson, 2004).
ANPR is a revolutionary technology that allows authorities to determine ownership of the vehicle through its registration plates with the help of sophisticated camera system that recognizes recorded pattern (Henderson, 2004). The technology was first used by the intercept officers across Wales and England in documenting vehicle crime and offenses in general. Henderson (2004) presented evidence of success on the use of ANPR in tracking and monitoring offenses by analyzing the results of pattern recognition. The report revealed that ANPR tools is extremely effective in terms of driving down car-theft related crimes, policing visibility, increasing arrest rate, and utilization of existing resources (Henderson, 2004). In addition, the report also suggests that the rolling out of Laser 2 pilot is a potential tool for intelligence gathering for law enforcement in terms of recovery operations. It was apparent from the report that ANPR can greatly improve policing operation and minimizing occurrences of theft crimes.
Part of maintaining police visibility during implementation of ANPR is ensuring that police efforts are being placed in critical areas called hot spots. Jang, Lee, and Hoover (2011) conducted a study explores the efficacy of the Dallas disruption unit in deploying and intensifying police visibility in car-theft hotspots. The study utilizes data from the Dallas Police Department in measuring differential influences in polices activities in areas considered as hotspot (Jang, Lee and Hoover, 2011). Furthermore, the study focuses on the effect of higher police visibility in areas reported to have higher crime rates and how Dallas police department deploy its resources and police manpower in combat car-theft related crimes.
The study also points out that increasing police visibility on what considered as hotspot areas helps in establishing awareness among the citizens of Dallas, which deter car thieves from committing any act of theft (Jang, Lee and Hoover, 2011). It is apparent that hotspots encompass the highest concentration of specific crimes be it car-thief or drug trafficking. This is because hotspots are considered as the middle point of activities where sources and market meet. For example, car-napping activities may be more frequent in one location because the area is for one, lacks visible authorities and second, the area appears to have more number of prospective sources of preferred car model in the stolen vehicle market. However, Dallas police department understands that importance of deploying more personnel in the area to limit movements from car syndicates. Jang, Lee, and Hoover (2011) concluded that focusing police efforts in hotspots effectively impact frequency of crimes, nuisance, and other crimes in the area including car-theft. Several effective activities will convey police presence in hotspots such as vehicle and pedestrian stops, random inquiry, setting up checkpoints, issuing arrests, and making arrests (Jang, Lee, and Hoover, 2011).
Among the aforementioned activities, vehicle stops was revealed the most effective approach in deterring car-thieves from committing offense. However, initiating similar activities requires that law enforcers are well equipped with the right tools and equipment to facilitate inquiries and verification processes during vehicle stops. Nunn (1993), conducted a study on the impact of mobile and digital technology in vehicle clearance of theft and increasing recovery rate in the State of Texas. The integration of computer technologies in law enforcement has provided greater advantage in terms of improving police processes and in serving justice. Police patrols equipped with computer and reliable wireless connection enabled them to make on-site verifications of highly suspicious individuals particularly when there are reports of stolen vehicles (Nunn, 1993). Mobile Digital Terminals or MDT installed in police cars make it easier for police officers to do more efficient inquiries and real-time checking of vehicle and individual legitimacy of ownership. Nunn (1993) study employed the use of time series method in observing the extent of impact that MDT has on crime –busting operations.
The data collected from time series observation including data acquired from Texas police department were cross-examined to determine variance in recovery rates before and after an intervention occurred and if having a computer in the patrol car made any difference. It was revealed from the study that MDT had little impact on elevating recovery rate and verification (Nunn, 1993). This is because despite having a computer inside the patrol car, the speed of information and supporting infrastructure for MDT is inadequate. This means reporting theft incident do not reach the patrol unit’ MDT on time and the verification process fails to render result because the computer in the patrol car received the report late. This problem is attributed to the lack of standalone technological infrastructure that will support MDT’s implementation (Nunn, 1993). Implementing MDT will require a dedicated computer infrastructure that will relay theft reports in real-time in order for law enforcers to apprehend suspects. Due to the perceived inefficiencies in MDT implementation, law enforcement agencies are searching for a more effective approach. Experimental approaches on the other hand encompass temporary and permanent motor vehicle theft rates or MVT (Roberts and Block, 2012).
The study conducted by Roberts and Block (2012) examined crime-specific multivariate models in assessing temporary and permanent theft rates. Determining MVT is detrimental in the formulation of standard approaches that can be put into a wider scale implementation. It was revealed in the study that large percentage of households and young male population is likely associated to temporary MVT (Roberts and Block, 2012). This means, the probability of the households and young male without their own vehicle may either contribute to the increase of MVT rate. Meanwhile, permanent MVT constitutes population segment involved at one time with car-theft and other related offenses. Knowing the number of citizen offenders provide a stable account of expected number of car-theft related crimes (Roberts and Block, 2012). Uncertainties as to when MVT will increase or decrease will depend on the defined population that has no vehicle. The results of Roberts and Block (2012) study is highly significant in predicting the changes and patterns in motor vehicle theft rate, which was further explored in the study by Walsh and Taylor (2007).
Apart from the differentiation in demographics, MVT rates are also influenced by other factors such as racial mix and the community’s proximity to areas with higher MVT. According to Walsh and Taylor (2007), MVT rates tend to increase if there is an apparent racial mix in the community. For example, if the is highly diversified in terms of ethnicity, non-locals are likely to commit car theft because of the lack of stable relation to the community as compared to communities with uniform racial population (Walsh and Taylor, 2007). Racial mix is considered as concurrent, while MVT, rates of neighbor communities are considered as subsequent. This is because the neighboring communities with high MVT are likely to infiltrate the other community with low MVT (Walsh and Taylor, 2007). Areas with high frequency of car-theft cases constitutes competition among offender, as a result, other thieves infiltrate the surrounding neighbor where there is less competition. The difference in MVT is determined by the intensity of law enforcement and implemented programs in the neighborhood. According to the study conducted by Webb (1994), comparing one area to another considers several factors that might either increase or decrease the number of car-theft cases. Urban areas are less likely to incur higher MVT as opposed to Suburban areas, which was revealed in Webb (1994) study.
References
Arrington, R. (2006). Crime prevention: The law enforcement officer's practical guide. Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Barthe, E. (2004). “Publicity and Car Crime Prevention.” In M.G. Maxfield and R.V. Clarke (eds.), Understanding and Preventing Car Theft. Crime Prevention Studies, volume 17 (pp.193-216). Monsey (New York): Criminal Justice Press.
Crawford, S. (2011). Dallas auto thefts continue to plummet. Dallas-Fort Worth News, Sports, Entertainment, Weather and Traffic. Retrieved October 23, 2013, from http://www.dallasnews.com/news/crime/headlines/20110824-dallas-auto-thefts-continue- to-plummet.ece
Ernst, K. (2011). Today in Car Theft: Dallas Dealer Loses 35 Sets of 20-Inch Wheels. Motor Authority. Retrieved October 23, 2013, from http://www.motorauthority.com/news/1063766_today-in-car-theft-dallas-dealer-loses-35- sets-of-20-inch-wheels
Henderson, C. (2004). Driving Crime Down, Denying Criminals the Use of the Road, [Automatic Number Plate Recognition (Anpr). London: TSO.
Jang, H., Lee, C. & Hoover, L. (2011). Dallas’ disruption unit: efficacy of hot spots development. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 35(3), 593-614.
Nunn, S. (1993). Computers in the Cop Car: Impact of the Mobile Digital Terminal Technology on Motor Vehicle Theft Clearance and Recovery Rates in a Texas City. Evaluation Review, 17(2), 182-203.
Roberts, A. & Block, S. (2012). Explaining Temporary and Permanent Motor Vehicle Theft Rates in the United States A Crime-Specific Approach. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(3), 445-571.
Walsh, J. & Taylor, R. (2007). Predicting Decade-Long Changes in Community Motor Vehicle Theft Rates: Impacts of Structure and Surround. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44(1), 64-90.
Webb, B. (1994). “Steering Column Locks and Motor Vehicle Theft: Evaluations from Three Cities.” In M.G. Maxfield and R.V. Clarke (eds.), Understanding and Preventing Car Theft. Crime Prevention Studies, volume 2 (pp. 71-89). Monsey (New York): Criminal Justice Press.
