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“There are three things extremely hard: steel, diamond, and to know one's self”—Benjamin Franklin
After reading and analyzing William James's essay, “The Self,” it would be easy to draw the same conclusion expressed by Benjamin Franklin in the above quote. The self is difficult to analyze because it comprises of various aspects or parts which integrate seamlessly to form a whole or complete individual. James, who was a philosopher, psychologist, and Harvard lecturer during the middle and late 1800s used much of his writings to define and explain the concept of the self, as it pertained to the fields of psychology and philosophy. Indeed, his book, The Principles of Psychology, was one of the earliest (and ground breaking) texts which were written on the subject of psychology and presented an unusual look at the human mind and how it functions. It is in this text that chapter ten, which is entitled, “The Self” is also found. An analysis and review of this chapter reveals that although James does not attempt to validate or discredit the phenomena of trances and totally discredits metaphysical theories, related to the unity of thought or the “collective consciousness,” without providing adequate evidence, his essay, “The Self,” reveals James's attempt at describing the various selves of an individual because James uses logical appeals and case studies to verify his position and, in doing this, he analyzes the relationship between the thinker and her thoughts.
James in his chapter entitled, “The Self,” places the various divisions of the “‘empirical ego’” or ‘the me’ in the following categories: the empirical self or me; the material me; the social me; and the spiritual me (174-178). In doing this, the writer exposes to the reader the various hierarchies of the self as a known entity. Afterwards, James then describes the various emotions and feelings attributed to the self or the empirical ego. Next, the writer then expounds on an individual’s need to be self seeking and self preserving before going into the rivalry which take place amongst the different aspects of the empirical ego.
It is important to note that this conclusion, in some ways, reiterates James’s central argument or thesis which posits that the self is both “partly known and partly knower, partly object and partly subject” (174). However, the writer contends that these are simply “‘discriminated aspects’” and “not separate things” (James 174). Consequently, the self as known (or the empirical ego) and the self as knower (or the pure ego expressed as thoughts) are one and the same. James then goes on to prove this argument in the rest of the chapter.
Two of the ways in which James attempts to justify his central argument include the use of case studies and logos or appeals to the logic. An example of James’ use of logos is depicted by the following: “stand [a dozen] men in a row or jam them in a bunch, and let each think of [a word given to each of them from a sentence of a dozen words] as intently as he will: nowhere will there be a consciousness of the whole sentence” (194). The writer uses this logical appeal to discredit the metaphysical idea which suggests that a collective consciousness exists. James is attempting to the dispute the notion presented by metaphysicians which suggest that “private minds” agglomerate into a “higher compound mind” (194). However, besides the use of logical appeals, the writer does not make use any other means of justification (by the presentation of case studies or actual experiments, for instance) to discredit the claims made by metaphysicians or “spiritualists” that there is a general unity of thought or the presence of a collective consciousness.
Moreover, another shortfall within William James’s argument can be noted in his inability to provide any evidence which discredits or justifies the validity of phenomena of trances, “‘mediumships,’” or “‘possessions’” (206). This is evidenced by the following: “I have no theory to publish of these cases [of mediumships], the actual beginning of several of which I have personally seen” (206). In other words, James have not made adequately observed and documented the occurrences of “‘mediumships’” in order to arrive at a conclusion which would either discredit or validate these experiences. Nevertheless, he explains to the reader that he is convinced by “abundant acquaintance with the trances of one medium that the ‘control’ may be altogether different from any actual waking self of the person” (James 207).
On the other hand, although the writer provides inadequate observations and documentations discrediting or validating the phenomena of trances, James provides sufficient evidence to verify the condition of a person’s mind, which on the verge of or experiencing insanity. This is illustrated by the following quoted by a patent of Dr. Krishaber: “I looked about me with terror and astonishment; the world was escaping from me.I remarked at the same time that my voice was extremely far away from me, that it sounded no longer as if mine” (James 202). The above was recorded by M. Taines and documents very carefully the mental disorientation of a patient. This case study helps James prove the point that a mentally insane persons perceives himself as either ceasing to exist, dead, or as a “foreign object quite separate from the speaker’s self” (James 202). Consequently, this lack of being identified with a person’s self or being is what creates his insanity.
In summary, William James in the chapter “The Self,” which is found in the text, The Principles of Psychology, attempts to not only show the relationship between the thought and the thinker, but also proves that both the thought and the thinker are one and the same. Additionally, the writer specifies each of the categories of the empirical ego or the self as known. In describing the self as knower or the pure ego, James discredits the philosophy expressed by metaphysicians or spiritualists that there is a collective consciousness or general unity of thought. The methods by which the writer proves his argument is through the use of logical appeals and case studies. However, it should be noted that James fails to provide sufficient evidence to prove or disprove the validity of the phenomena of trances. Moreover, he provides limited evidence to support his claim that there is no general unity of thought or a collective consciousness.
Work Cited
James, William. “The Self.” The Principles of Psychology. Authorized ed. New York: Dover Publications, 1950. 174-209. Print.
