Instruction Design
Instructional Design
Introduction
The designation, development, and delivery of instructions follow a procedural process termed as instructional design (ID). It is an evaluation of the learning requirement and systematic improvement of teaching. An effective instructional design harbors various strategic plans to deliver learning experiences. The design facilitates the increment and enhancement of learning, creates a reliable and effective model of acquiring knowledge, as well as motivates the learners to engage each other and foster fast and deep studies. One significant purpose of instructional design is identifying the instruction outcomes. Essentially, the instructions must deliver their aims by making educational interventions count as a relevant tactic of instilling knowledge and influencing students’ skills. Instructional design sets up a systematic approach to monitor learning occasionally through continuous assessment tests. Eventually, the final tests reveal the performance of learners and classify their understanding where they are compared with other educational institutions within a region (Tae, 2014). It also facilitates organization of content by forecasting their arrangements as well as how they follow each to other in the syllabus. The organization of a long time plan to instruct students enhances an overall recap of the syllabus by proper time and cost management. Most instructors design instructions in order to consider all the requirements when there is sufficient time to accommodate most teaching approaches. Furthermore, they manage to create an amicable approach that can run through the course learning period. This paper investigates instructional design on the procedures, characteristics, history, psychological foundations, evaluation, motivation, performance, volition, e-learning, as well as its professional ethics.
An educator usually refers to the design in order to gather procedures selected for delivering instructions to learners. In fact, sequencing the lessons to ensure that each topic is addressed at the time when the students understand the level of materials being taught is fundamental. The design determines the standards instruction strategies in order to exempt variations rooted in the personal teaching plans. These standards are embedded within the instructional design for all educators to follow without compromising the quality of education as set in the curriculum (Sims, 2012). The instructional designs run in a strategic approach where the goals of teaching are established before analyzing the teaching approaches (Sims, 2015). This step is followed by the identification of students’ characteristics as well as their entry level behaviors especially on the level of skills. The individual goals of instructions must be split to narrower objectives that the instructor can address directly. The objectives are accomplished by setting the most suited method of delivering the individual aims of a lesson. For instance, the design outlines whether the most suited methods should be active or passive. Active activities as applied within laboratories may be selected for their credit on involving the students and facilitating better understanding on theory. This step can be followed by the assembly of the materials required to deliver the instructions while using the specified methods. For instance, if the method recommends the use of a lab to perform experiments, all the materials required for the experiments must be organized before the practical commences (Boone & Higgins, 2015). The design proceeds to develop a plan for interactive approaches used during the instructions, where the educators formulate how they interact with learners through the lesson. Once the instructions end, a summative evaluation of the achievements made during the lesson is identified in order to ensure that the current lesson follow the upcoming ones. From this position, the instructions are assessed in order to determine whether the learners understood the concepts taught as well as evaluate their class performances.
Characteristics of ID
The contemporary setup of instructional designs is distinct from the ‘traditional’ models where Dick, Carey, and Carey (2005) popularized a rectilinear row of boxes joined by lines and arrows. This earlier model was formulated and revised to possess more characteristics that can render instructions efficiently. The features of ID can be categorized into six different factors. First, ID ought to be student centered where the educators direct all aims and objectives towards fostering the understanding of the learners. The student-centered ID is directed towards enabling the students to perform well. This model enhances a broad scope of instructions where students can receive instructions in diverse ways inclusive of teaching enhanced through technology, self and group studies, as well as teacher-based learning. Furthermore, a student-centered ID considers the suggestions of learners on the instructing progress where ideas are incorporated into the design.
Secondly, the ID is oriented towards reaching goals that meet the learning expectations while warranting the application of standard procedures. The ID must answer how the goals set for the projects were attained. Thirdly, the ID targets to create a meaningful performance where a learner does not simply learn about the theories and fail to comprehend their applications. The focus of ID is to approach teaching in a way that the learners apply and practice their instructions in order to comprehend them. The ID, therefore, ought to combine the basic school-based learning with the training programs. Fourth, the assessment models of learners’ performances must follow valid and reliable strategies identified within the ID. Some assessment styles may pay attention to the application of theoretical models learned from lessons. Essentially, such assessment tools as multiple-answer tests and application of open questions may differ in examining the abilities of learners on understanding the topics covered within the instructions.
If an assessment tool does not provide constant testing conditions, the performance of students become compromised and makes their graphical relationships unreliable (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). An effective ID used data to validate arguments by providing empirical evidence that can be applied to make a decision regarding teaching. Finally, ID should be formed through diverse ideologies from many people who participate in rendering the best instructions to its audience. The establishment of a decisive ID should incorporate evaluations, corrections, and alignments in order to curb any unsatisfying issues.
History of Instructional Design and Media
Instructional Media
The means by which instruction are delivered to the learners is referred to as the instructional media. It implies that facilities, computers, or other resources applied in availing the instructions, except the three common ones inclusive of teacher, chalkboard, and textbook, are part of this media. Since the first decade of 20th century, the preservation of school materials was commenced in the United States (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). The history of instruction was retained in school museums using multimedia formats. This increased documentation of schooling materials led to the introduction of learning based on multimedia where people used videos and images to study. A movement of learning that was subject to criticism arose by the name visual education where public school adopted films as a part of the learning models. The learning model fostered by films was upgraded to a new audiovisual movement and instructional radios. The instructions were broadcasted through the radio waves in audio and audiovisual formats. Authors supported these models operated through organized education platforms to influence education for all people. The growth of audiovisual instruction reduced during the Second World War.
The progressive development of instructions availed through radio waves evolved to televisions in the mid 20th century. The televisions were later replaced by computer technology that did not only deliver the visual instructions, but also enhanced interactive platform with the learning materials in terms of storage and maneuverability. After the computers evolved with time to become reliable tools for learning, a system to facilitate communication between the computers currently termed as the Internet was developed. It allowed people to gather learning materials from global databases into their computers without traveling to purchase the hardcopy books.
Instructional Design
During the Second World War, heated debates regarding the standard ways of delivering instructions and the reliability of models encouraged the establishment of ID (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). The ID was established after consultations with psychologists and educators. It evolved as Programmed Instruction Movement that controlled the standards of delivering instructions and defined the acceptable and unacceptable model within the dynamic environment at the time. The programmed instructions derived new approaches where learners were assessed basing on the teaching objectives. This factor led to the introduction of behavioral objectives, testing movement and evaluation methods. The ID models evolved from the 1960s design termed as “system development” through 1970s’systems approach, 1980s’ growth and redirection, 1990s’ performance importance, to contemporary e-learning and informal learning approaches (Ross & Morrison, 2010).
Psychological Foundation of ID
The ID functions under the assumption that instructions lead to learning. There are psychological theories underlying the teaching models that instructors design before appearing to their target audience. Instructions are perceived, recognized, and coded before they can be processed and stored within the temporary holdings of the mind in a similar way that a computer works (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). The storage acts as the reference point where a learner retrieves information through remembering. Constructivism is a theoretical model in psychology where people define the world on their existing experiences. The model argues that people define how the world operates through learning new experiences. Another psychological foundation involves the learning retrieved from situations where an action is happening, and the learning is involved subjectively (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Finally, connectivism is based on diverse learning where bits of information contribute to the individual learning of a single idea.
Motivation, Volition, and Performance
In perspective, the delivery of effective instructions to learners is a sensitive issue that demands the commitment of instructors in order to ensure continued learning. One of the tactics widely applied to attract the attention of instructors in delivering reliable instructions in mediated through motivations. Ideally, the motivation of instructors can be fostered by promotions, rewards, and salary advances among other such aspects. Other forms of motivations in delivering motivations are enhanced by fostering diverse formats of teaching where an educator delivers instructions through trips, lab session, classes, and other interactive or active activities (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). In fact, even changes in environmental setup may motivate the learners and educator. The instructors must obtain the motives to attain the goals set for the course in order to foster good performances.
The other fundamental aspect that affects the delivery of instruction that must be considered within the ID is volition. The willingness of the learners and instructors to receive and deliver instructions respectively may influence the outcomes (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Volition refers to the willingness of an instructor to teach using specific design within the ID as well as student to learn using them. When one side of the ID is not up to the learning, the approaches are deemed to be ineffective depending on the number of individuals who do not subscribe to it. The performance of students elevates as the volition and motivation elevate within the learning and assessment period.
Evaluation of ID
The evaluation of ID is crucial to determine its relevance to the teaching practices. There are 5 models applied to evaluate the ID. These models include the Stufflebeam’s CIPP, Rossi’s Five-Domain, Kirkpatrick’s Training, Brinkerhoff’s Success Case, and Pattons Utilization-Focused evaluation models (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Formative evaluations are intended to enhance modifications within existing instruction designs in order to facilitate performance. The summative evaluations are performed for future record keeping and do not affect the performance of the instructed students. The five mentioned evaluation programs were set to facilitate better education system by modifying teaching and updating the syllabus with time. Stufflebeam’s CIPP evaluation is based on four factors that identify the context in which instructions are delivered, the input invested in the teaching program, the process followed to instruct, and the outcomes or products attain at the end. Rossi’s Five-Domain is an evaluation model where instructions are associated with the societal requirement of workforce and skills needed. The model presents the ID to enhance needs, theory, implementation, impact, and efficiency assessments. Kirkpatrick’s Training model is founded on students’ attitude, learning, behavior, and results. One evaluation that assesses whether the ID applied to teach was effective is referred to as Brinkerhoff’s Success Case (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). In essence, evaluation plays essential roles in all main segments of the ID, learners’ performance, value judgments, and institutional improvement.
E-Learning and ID
The modern education systems have evolved to enhance distance learning via multimedia and internet used to receive instructions. E-learning must have an automated system to operate with minimal human involvement, which implies that the instructions must be arranged properly for the students to understand and follow up classes in real-time (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Essentially, most e-learning education system lacks some of the practical and face-to-face interaction. However, in-class learning may be replaced by the use of images, minimizing page distractions, provision of sufficient white space, content break up, page appearances, and content consistency. In an online context, the ID is maneuverable where the instructor can adjust timeline and edit some of the instructions in regard to unforeseen events. In an online learning system, the ID used for the normal face-to-face classes are transferred to online environments. However, there are some changes associated with how the instructions are delivered while compared to an online system. For instance, e-learning may exempt some of the procedures outlined within the ID since some forms of instructions cannot be availed through online environments. For instance, class participation and experiments cannot be performed in a similar manner as the traditional class models would demand. However, the experiments can be performed by the instructor as examples for the learners to observe whereas class participation may happen through constant communication through messages.
Professional Ethics in ID
The ID comprises of information that guides on how the professional responsibilities and moral regards are addressed in a prepared teaching model. Professional requirements are set in standard ways that restrain the educators from acting in their volitions. These standards identify educators who fail to meet their requirements as set from the terms and conditions enlisted by an organization (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Instructors must also be careful on how they handle the students in order to prevent negligence. For instance, a lab has the terms and conditions that guide the learners on how they should operate when in it. Professionalism must sum these aspects to determine how the learners should be taught within the requirement set within the curriculum.
The ID ensures that the values and principles of institutions are followed to relay concise adherence on procedures that students and teachers can follow whenever necessary. Ethics may vary depending on the situations and contexts surrounding an expected learning outcome. Primarily, the education system and learners’ skill levels vary depending on their age and background. The most important aspect is assigning the right task to a rightly qualified individual who can relay the best professional services. When unqualified personnel handle a task, it is much more likely that the instructions released at the end of a period are unreliable (Mohammadove & Salahshoor, 2006). Furthermore, professionalism considers the learning levels of learners in order to determine how they should be instructed. Young learners are addressed differently as compared to the elderly students depending on their maturity and seriousness.
The assessment of professional ethics is critical for instructors since it determines whether the instructions can raise unethical issues. Professional ethics is an area that promotes the reputation and credibility of an institution. In cases where professional ethics has been compromised, the management of such an institution is subject to operations’ failure and management problems.
Conclusion
It is crucial to design instructions before they can be delivered in the classes. The ID ensures that time has been used properly from the beginning of the course. This paper has addressed the standard procedure, characteristics, theoretical models, history and evaluations among other factors related to teaching. It has availed the importance of planning instructions in order to evaluate the models of teaching for a long period and create a reliable strategy that can be applied for a long teaching period.
The paper also reviews the development of instructional model from the traditional forms to the prevailing e-learning where learning is much easier. Another essential assessment performed on this paper involves the assessment of factors that participate in creating the best ID through influencing the motives, volitions, and performances of learners. The models of assessing the ID were presented in order to sort all the issues related to the designs. The final section of the paper discusses a crucial factor of professional ethics that shapes the ID. Professional ethics is the foundation of standard education where people instruct in similar ways without contradicting information.
References
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