Background of the Case Study
The case concerns James, a student who used to get Bs on his weekly quizzes. Nevertheless, James failed his succeeding quizzes after being confused and consequently failing in one of his former quizzes. James lost his motivation after this but after encouragement from his teacher Ms. Khan, he looked for ways to overcome this challenge. Considering the scenario, the objective of this discussion is to integrate psychological theories in education or learning to the case of James in order to further understand the circumstances surrounding his situation. In the succeeding discussion, James’ situation will be explored and analysed using theories in learning and education such as motivation theories, the concept of information processing, behavioural theories, social learning and the social cognitive theory.
James’ Needs
Based on the scenario presented in the case study, James’ needs pertain to motivation, self-esteem, and continued guidance and reinforcement. James lost his self-confidence after failing his maths quizzes many times, which consequently influenced his motivation to learn. Hence, James needs to restore his confidence in himself so he would also feel motivated to learn and know that he is capable of understanding concepts and solving problems in maths. James also needs continued guidance and reinforcement. He needs guidance so he would be able to determine ways to improve his knowledge and skills in maths (Gadsdon, 2001; Killen, 2007). This is especially important since based on the case study, James learns effectively with the help and guidance of other people including his peers. James also needs constant positive reinforcement because even after successfully receiving passing marks for his quizzes after studying with Susan, he still feels nervous (Earley & Ang, 2003). To regain his confidence in himself, there must be constant positive reinforcement, especially from the teacher.
Ms. Khan’s Response
When James talked to Ms. Khan about his problem in maths, Ms. Khan told him that she does not want to listen to James’ hardship in this subject because she knows that James is skilled and capable of understanding and dealing with problems in maths. Ms. Khan’s responses, which will be further explored in the succeeding discussion, are both positive and negative. Ms. Khan’s response was positive because it developed self-efficacy in James such that he sought help from Susan after, and later on received passing marks. Moreover, Ms. Khan’s words were also encouraging. Nevertheless, when Ms. Khan said, “I don’t want to hear those words”, it was seemingly dismissive. One of the roles or responsibilities of teachers is to listen to students (Schultz, 2003; Stronge, 2007). Moreover, the teacher is responsible for guiding the students and understanding or determining sources of hardship and challenges that affect learning. Ms. Khan should have listened to James first so she would know why he finds maths concepts and problems difficult. Doing so would have helped Ms. Khan similarly make adjustments in the classroom to accommodate James’ needs or to assess whether other students in the classroom are also having problems with the lesson. Furthermore, listening to James would encourage him to ask for help from others if he experiences challenges or difficulties not only in maths but in other subjects as well. Ms. Khan’s words could potentially dishearten James from asking for help from others in the future.
It is appropriate to criticise Ms. Khan because of her dismissiveness in dealing with James’ problems. One of responsibilities of teachers is to show care and understanding of their students (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013). The teacher must show empathy by communicating genuine interest in the situation of students in the classroom. Hence, Ms. Khan should have listened to James’ problems so she could have recommended solutions to help him. Concepts and theories in motivation similarly highlight the role of the teacher in motivating students (Eggen & Kauchak). Ms. Khan should have listened to James’ problems because it would have helped her identify strategies and approaches during instruction that would help him learn maths concepts better.
Ideal teacher qualities include the initiative to promote learning and motivation. Although the teacher failed to intervene immediately by simply asking James about his performance, the teacher, Ms. Khan, showed emotional support by showing that she believed in James skills and abilities. By telling James, “I know you can do this work”, Ms. Khan gave James a reason to believe in himself. Furthermore, Ms. Khan’s expectations of James boosted his self-esteem and motivated him to look for ways improve his performance in maths. The effect or influence of Ms. Khan’s views and expectations of James equates to the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013). The concept of self-fulfilling prophecies in learning relates the idea that in some situations, the performance of individuals result from other people’s expectations and beliefs of them. In the case of James, Ms. Khan made it clear that she believes in James and that she knows that he is knowledgeable in maths. James’ positive response to this and the improvement in his performance later on reflects the effect of self-fulfilling prophecies (Eggen & Kauchak).
Ms. Khan’s strategy or approach in dealing with James’ problem in maths was to develop self-efficacy in him (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013). One of the important roles of the teacher is to create or develop a motivating environment for learning. Doing so is important because motivation affects the participation or engagement and performance of students in the classroom (Christenson, Reschly, & Wylie, 2012; O’Donnell, Reeve, & Smith, 2011). Teachers may develop self-efficacy among the students in many ways. Ms. Khan’s words of encouragement for James was the teacher’s strategy for the student to renew his belief in himself, which consequently contributed to James’ self-efficacy later on. In this way, Ms. Khan made James recognise and believe in his skills and capabilities in overcoming challenges including failure. Aside from giving words of encouragement, the teacher must also continuously encourage students and develop their self-efficacy by acknowledging or praising the students’ efforts and initiatives (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013). Hence, James’ positive behaviour after asking for Susan’s help will continue if Ms. Khan acknowledges his efforts.
Application of Psychological Theories in Learning
James consequent failures significantly affected his interest and motivation in learning. In the beginning, James received average marks. Nonetheless, James got confused during the succeeding quiz, which earned him a failing mark. James also failed the next two quizzes. After failing the weekly maths quizzes three times in a row, James lost interest in maths and the motivation to learn. The impact of his failures on his interest and motivation manifest in the way that he responded to it after. Instead of studying more, James chose to study at the last minute so he can use it as a reason if he fails. Intervention by the teacher would have been necessary at this point because the decline in James’ performance was apparent (Paratore & McCormack, 2011). Since the teacher failed to intervene, the pattern of failure continued, which consequently influenced James’ self-esteem, even believing that he was dumb at maths. Similarly, this manifested physically in the way that James’ hands shake when taking the quizzes.
Social learning significantly improved James’ situation. Ms. Khan’s positive encouragement helped James realize that the needs to look for ways to understand maths so he would be able to improve his performance. A motivated James asked help from Susan, a fellow student who is good in maths. James displayed social cognition at this point because he was observant of the way that Susan studied and analysed maths problems. Based on the Social Cognitive Theory developed by Neal Miller and John Dollard, and later on explored by Albert Bandura, social cognition allows individuals to learn behaviour by observing others (Chance, 2008; Taylor & MacKenney, 2008). The condition for social cognition is that this individual must be motivated to learn by observation. As formerly noted, Ms. Khan’s encouragement motivated James to learn and he did so by asking help and observing Susan’s approaches to learning. James willingly undertook the challenged and sought for Susan’s help on his own. Moreover, James observed Susan’s approaches and showed interested in understanding why these approaches worked. James asked Susan about it and he also willingly tried her approaches, which later on worked in his favour.
According to Miller and Dollard, an individual would be able to learn a desired skill or behaviour through wilful observation, something that James did by observing Susan’s approaches in maths. An important aspect of the social cognitive theory is that when an individual learns a desired skill or behaviour through observation, the success of his or her efforts become positive reinforcement (Chance, 2008; Taylor & MacKenney, 2008). This manifests in James’ response to his success following his conversations and experiences with Susan. James received passing marks in his succeeding quizzes, which reinforced his behaviour of wilful social learning and observation. Nonetheless, even if James believes that he can overcome challenges in maths, he remains nervous as he is wary of failing again. At this point, continuous positive reinforcement as well as encouragement from Ms. Khan are necessary to help James overcome his nervousness and restore his belief in himself.
James’ ability to apply Susan’s approaches in solving actual maths problems illustrates his skill in information processing. Information processing refers to the way that people process or make sense of information. This also relates to the way that people use or apply information. In the case of James, his skills in information processing manifest in the way that he effectively applied what he learned by observing Susan and practising Susan’s approach during actual assessment – weekly maths quizzes. Hence, James has a well-functioning working and long term memory because he not only understood and effectively applied Susan’s approaches in solving maths problems but also applied it during classroom assessment (Oxford, 2013). A superior long-term memory reflects James’ capabilities in analysing, understanding, and organising information so he can use or apply it later on.
The need for constant reinforcement to motivate and develop confidence in the learner (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013) is proven by behavioural theories such as operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Conditioning focuses on the repetition of behaviour as a means of developing this in an individual (Taylor, 2004). Receiving positive reinforcement every time an individual exhibits a specific type of behaviour, for instance, would help him or her acquire this. Simple repetition also allows the individual to develop a behaviour into a habit. For these reasons, constant positive reinforcement is important to further solidify self-efficacy, confidence, and motivation in the learner. Moreover, repetitive behaviour will also help James acquire specific behaviour. This manifests in the way that James learned maths concepts by repeating exercises with Susan.
Cognitive and Social Development
Considering James’ behaviour and responses in the case study, he is at certain stages or levels of cognitive and social development. Based on Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, James is in the concrete operational stage. In this stage, individuals are able to apply mental operations in order to organise knowledge and to master concepts and solutions, among others (Rathus, 2013). James manifests these behaviours in the way that he was able to understand concepts in maths by repeating various solutions. This impacts teachers’ strategies as they can select more challenging tasks for students to accomplish. Erik Erikson’s stages of socio-emotional development show that James is in the fourth stages – industry vs. inferiority. In this stage, the child is expected to learn or acquire more skills. Furthermore, it is during this stage that children learn to discipline themselves (Sigelman & Rider, 2008). Children who learned to trust and later on became autonomous and showed initiative are those that would later on appreciate the value of industry (Sigelman & Rider). Hence, they would be able to discipline or control themselves, show initiative, and value work as part of their successes. James is in this stage because he has shown initiative to look for ways to solve his problem. Moreover, he showed industry in the way that he observed Susan, sought to understand her approach, and apply it to understand concepts in maths. This impacts the strategies and approaches of the learner such that he or she would give students more responsibility and tasks in the classroom and develop self-efficacy and independent learning among them.
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