LITERATURE REVIEW – GENDER EQUALITY IN
Literature Review – Gender Equality in
Corporate America
Literature reveals the ongoing issue of gender equality in corporate America remains problematic for women. The importance of this issue aligns to implications of the continued lack of social progress taking place in American business among other areas and represents the backward view society continues practicing in general. Gender is the specific issue of inequality among the female population in the corporate America but unfortunately again, as statistics found in literature from studies of inequalities of diversity compounds the situation connecting to hiring practices. This institutionalization of such illegal ideas leads to an inherent lack of critical thinking toward society ensuring gender and other characteristics of diverse populations existing in the top echelons of corporate America ironically robs such workplaces of innovative minds contributing to a more cohesive workforce. The following literature review analyzes and discusses challenges corporate America faces, realities of gender equality among the workforce including national economic factors, the HRM perspective, and the discussion section provides both male and female point of view on the issue.
Gender Equality in Hiring
Challenges Faced in Corporate America
Corporate America faces long established norms that have inherently excluded women from having equal standing in leadership and management positions. Outdated organizational cultures excluding women advancing in management and other leadership positions typically plague corporate America into the 21st century according to Smith (2010). Smith’s (2010) article provides an analysis of the major American women continue facing in the workplace. The framework of the outdated corporate cultural ideologies of gender equality align to perceived roles of men and women in working environments.
Perceived Roles of Men and Women
Eagly (2013) argues in results of her study that perceived roles of men and women in the workforce adhere to outdated bias against women and remains so because of a lack of specific identities typically existing in firms themselves. The Eagly (2013) findings collaborated with other research outcomes that concluded how the total negative effect on diversity included women sitting on corporate boards. Consequently, the implications of these findings demonstrate the need for further analysis regarding specific roles of women in corporations as related to both the positions they currently hold as well as ways corporations view themselves and their roles in society. This prevailing status then brings to the forefront the realities of gender work for equality – or inequality as it stands for women as part of an issue of diversity equality.
Realities of Gender Work Force Equality
Economic Factors
Floro (2009) reports research findings of how the global economic crisis especially effects working women. Significant research on this subject according to Floro (2009) remains sorely lacking in the area of workforce that can help to develop the underlying principles associated with the issue. Review of this establishes the current state of research on the issue of gender inequality in the workplace in general prods the importance of developing new methods of inquiry and analysis of information and substantiates the intention of the proposed research project in this academic endeavor contributing to and filling the existing gap in understanding the lack of gender equality in corporate America.
Further, Floro (2009) findings indicate how economic crises adversely and directly affect the roles and rights of women equality for jobs and in the present state shows an ongoing effect on women in America emerging from this condition. This demonstrates the need for aligning mechanisms mitigating “the negative effects of the (economic) crisis on women, in order to ensure that the gains in women empowerment and gender equality in the last few decades are not put in danger (p. 2).” Human resource management (HRM) professionals have a particular perspective on the issue according to the literature.
The HRM Perspective
Despite the historical progress in women equality in the United States Parcheta, Kaifi, and Khanfar (2013) reports HRM professionals sees how numerous levels of inequality are capable of alleviation. The fact is the issue is not simply a matter of women earning less money for the same work men are paid higher wages, but rather it is an issue of women facing what is called a glass ceiling on wage earning potential connecting to an idea that purposefully blocks both women and minorities reaching upper level management This demonstrates a major obstacle American women still face in the modern corporate culture clearly indicating one of the various sources of gender inequality that needs eliminated. From the HRM perspective the issue of women having equal opportunity for employment in general continues despite legal precedents overruling such practices in America.
Lack of Gender Equality in Employment
Literature provided by Kelso (2012) discusses the ongoing battle American women have had over the past few decades gaining equality across the board now enjoyed since the advent of the signing of the Civils Rights Amendment of 1964 and in the progress in Switzerland. The study reports varying degrees of progress for women in America in gaining equality in work places however, there are still obvious areas women equality continue needing improvement
In the United States, gender equality issues show a false understanding they no longer exist but is far from the truth with institutionalized gender discrimination according to Kelso (2012). In fact, ranking among the lowest in percentile globally among Western industrial nations, the United States women in government remains low and hold the highest numbers in maternal deaths thus, demonstrating underlying symptoms of gender inequality in politics and health care plaguing this nation as a leading Western industrialized country. Further to the issue is the status of gender equality aligned to representation of women in leadership, authority, and powerful positions.
Pande and Ford (2011) argue, “Despite significant advances in education and political participation, women remain underrepresented in leadership positions in politics and business across the globe (p. 1).” Review of existing evidence by Pande and Ford (2011) shows countries including the U.S. response to the ongoing inequality look to introducing “quotas (that) can reduce gender discrimination in the long-term (p. 1).” But, “The board quota evidence is more mixed (p. 1).” In fact, correlating female entry on board aligned to changing corporate management practices the change has apparent adverse influences on short-run realities. The wider cross-country context of the issue shows evidence in numerous settings connected to political and corporate entities frequently strategic in circumventing intended impact of quota design. “Consistent with this, we report suggestive evidence that the design of the quota and selection systems matter for increasing female leadership (p. 1).” The issues also affect women in powerful academic positions.
Academic Scene
West and Curtis (2006) brings the issue of gender equality connection to academics demonstrating in the outcomes of her study how barriers to success continue for women with low representation. This basically lowers intended standards for diversity in academic settings that shows women missing from the ranks of faculty as well as showing that a lack of research questioning this practice that shows an important deliberation regarding women in the general workplace. As a consequence, such varieties of perspectives and opinions assert an environment in the corporate setting that provides with ensuing benefits to the corporate workplace. The literature provides other perspectives according to Jackson (1998).
The Future
Inequality and gender in the future according to Jackson (1998) looks at women included as minorities proves the trend for progressive rights continues with the specific goal of inclusionary practices establishing full equality for this faction of society. Jackson (1998) remains positive in his view and this is regardless of current diversity issues including women that persist. While his view is of the late last century, the compilation of the above discourse shows that “significant threats to future equality are incomplete, empirically dubious, and theoretically weak (p. 25)” are consistent to the ensuing years through today from when he published this work. In this sense, it seems that despite the major progress that has been made, movements toward equality are only just beginning.
Discussion
A Man’s Perspective
The consequences of a democratic society show the challenges of freedom, equality, and the realities of the founding forefathers (and here ironically is a clear indication of the long way women in America had to go and unfortunately still battle for equality). Kimmel (2005) sees the importance of men supporting gender equality because of the lack of their overall lack of participation and attributes this as a fundamental factor leading to the present state of gender inequality in the workplace with the basic obstacles for women centered in both attitudes and behaviors of men. The implication lends to the reality can America’s entire population adopt the concept of gender equality. Kimmel (2005) presents two primary considerations on this issue attributing gender equality joining the race and class issue designating gender equality as the third primary axis society organizes. The importance of this further demonstrates how gender equality plays out in society’s modern notions of social interaction and conditioning. Further, this constitutes a major aspect extending to the transformation of gender equality in the workplace. Consequently, another aspect of men supporting women equality proves pragmatic the progress of a better society for everyone no matter race, creed, culture, lifestyle, and gender. The empowerment of every diverse group in a society including women remains basic to achieving the equality of every human.
Empowering Women
Empowerment of women through gender equality theoretically eliminates them being reminded they are not equal when confronted with the sexist behavior too often exhibited in the workplace. Despite arguments sourcing such behavior results from lifestyle choices it is the perpetuation of inherent gender bias towards women workers. However, the author also argues that there are biases in the workplace for both men and women of different cultures. “Existing cultural biases deny both males and females equal opportunities in the workplace (p. 3).” Research suggests that women who have obtained similar educations to men even earn fewer wages in occupations where men reap higher median wages when compared to female dominated occupational fields. “The growing pains of a democracy unfortunately linger when it affects the demographics of diversity including gender. Furthermore, the author indicates that, according to research, women experience pay-gaps across the board regardless of occupation, race, age, academic achievement, or where they live thus exacerbating the issue.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the above literature review successfully reveals how the ongoing issue of gender equality in corporate America remains problematic for women and society in general. The challenge continues in a democratic society to overcome the bias, the inherent prejudice that women have lesser ability and entitlement to opportunities equal to men. The focus of the academic suggested academic project to research this further proves legitimate.
References
Eagly A.H. (2013). Gender and Work: Challenging Conventional Wisdom. Harvard Business School. Retrieved from
http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/conferences/2013-w50-research-symposium/Documents/eagly.pdf
Floro, M.S. (2009). The Impact of the Economic Crisis on Women's Empowerment. Swedish International Development Agency. Retrieved from
https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/pdf/upload/2009-26.pdf
Jackson, R.M. (2001). Chapter 7: Opposing Forces: How, Why, and When Will Gender Inequality Disappear. Blau, F. D., Brinton, M. C., Grusky, D. B. (Eds). The Declining Significance of Gender. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Retrieved from
http://www.nyu.edu/classes/jackson/seminar.inequality/Readings/DecliningSignGender-Jackson.pdf
Kelsey, C.L. (2003). Gender inequality: Empowering women. Journal of Legal Issues and Cases in Business. Retrieved from
http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/131765.pdf
Kelso, M. (2012). Gender Equality in Employment. George Washington University Archives.
Kimmel, M.S. (2005). Why Men Should Support Gender Equality. Women's Studies Review. Retrieved from http://www.lehman.edu/deanhum/womenstudies-to-be-removed/pdf/Section10.pdf
Pande, R., & Ford, D. (2011). Gender Quotas and Female Leadership: A Review. Retrieved from http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/rpande/papers/Gender%20Quotas%20%20April%202011pdf
Parcheta, N., Kaifi, B.A., & Khanfar, N.M. (2013). Gender Inequality in the Workforce: A Human Resource Management Quandary. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly. 4(3). ISSN 2152-1034. Retrieved from http://jbsq.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/March_2013_17.pdf
Smith, J.W. (2010). Workplace challenges in corporate America. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion. International Journal. Retrieved from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/02610151011089500?journalCode=edi
West, M.S., & Curtis, J. (2006). Organizing Around Gender Equality. American Association of University Professors. Copyright © 2006 American Association of University Professors (AAUP). Retrieved from
http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/63396944-44BE-4ABA-9815-5792D93856F1/0/AAUPGenderEquityIndicators2006.pdf
