Introduction
Cotton Mather was an influential Puritan minister of New England in USA. He was the son and grandson of two prominent Puritan ministers Increase Mather and Richard Mather. He was a prolific writer who had 468 publications to his credit. Some of the books written by him like 'Magnalia Christi Americana', 'Bonifacius' and 'The Angel of Bethesda' are very important for American history (GSU 2011). He completed his graduation at the age 16 from Harvard University, thereby becoming one of the youngest graduate ever from the institution. Mather like his father Increase Mather was a strong defender of Puritan orthodoxy and played an influential role in the persecution of witchcraft of his time. His role in Salem witchcraft trial is very well-known. He also cherished an interest in the New Sciences and medical theories. After he was elected as the Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1713, he made an effort in defending and promoting the new scientific theories of Sir Isaac Newton, Henry More, Thomas Burnet, William Derham and many others (GSU 2011). Mather is known in the American history for his role in introducing smallpox inoculation in USA, his involvement in the Salem witchcraft trials and his authorship of a great many books which continue to inspire generations of Americans.
Introduction of Smallpox Inoculation
Cotton Mather played an instrumental role in introducing smallpox inoculation to USA. Smallpox is a life-threatening highly contagious disease which killed millions worldwide and spread in New England in USA in an epidemic form in the 1600s and then again in 1702. People who survived the disease became immune and for the next 19 years Boston did not witness any smallpox epidemic. It was in 1721 on 22nd April when a British ship named 'the HMS Seahorse' arrived at Boston from Barbados carrying the germs of smallpox. Within a day of its arrival, a crew member showed signs of smallpox. He was quarantined near to the harbor in a house but despite this, nine more crew members became afflicted with the disease and by mid-June, the disease spread among resident Bostonians at an alarming rate (Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin 2004). Boston was engulfed in a wave of uncertainty and deaths triggered by the sudden spread of the disease and many residents fled from the city. The combination of quarantine, mass exodus and fears threw the city into complete disarray. Cotton Mather who was an erudite man cherished a genuine interest in medicine and he stated in his diary on 26th May, "The grievous calamity of the small pox has now entered the town" (Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin 2004). It was in this diary that he expressed his thoughts on inoculation stating that he had come to know that he himself was inoculated from smallpox as a child in Africa. It was a Negro slave named Onesimus who intimated him about the practice of inoculation prevalent in Africa. In fact, not only in Africa, inoculation was practiced for centuries in certain parts of China and India too (Blake 1952).
In China, traces of inoculation could be found in the time period as early as 1000 BC when inoculation was administered by introducing smallpox germ through a scratch in the skin or holding cotton soaked in variola pus into the nostril or by blowing the dried powder from scabs into the nostril through a tube and in India, inoculation was administered by putting variola pus or scabs into a scratch in the skin of healthy people (Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin 2004). Cotton Mather took the initiative to introduce smallpox inoculation by sending letters to physicians in Boston but it was Dr. Zabdiel Boylston who responded to him and together, they started a campaign of administering inoculation. Before beginning to inoculate others, Dr. Zabdiel Boylston applied the procedure on his own six years old son Thomas, his Negro slave and a two and half years old boy named Jackey. He inoculated in total about 287 Bostonians out of which only six people died (Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin 2004).
However, Mather and Boylston's campaign for inoculation came under heated criticism from all corners. There were few physicians who believed that the inoculation campaign caused many deaths and helped the spread of infection. Few others like John Checkley and Dr William Douglass founded the Society of Physicians Anti-Inoculators to oppose the practice of inoculation (Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin 2004). There were few physicians who believed that administering inoculation by introducing the germ of a disease in a healthy person was an unethical practice. Not only physicians, Puritans also raised object to the process of inoculation. According to many Puritans, creating a wound to introduce the germ of a disease equated to violence. Since spiritual evidence about inoculation could not be found in the Bible, many Puritans held the opinion that the entire process was against the will of God. However, despite many Puritans raising objection against the process, there were few Puritans like Mather's own father Increase Mather, Puritan pastors William Cooper and Benjamin Colman supported the inoculation campaign wholeheartedly. Mather and Boylston amidst all the charges raised against them defended their actions in full force. They even published a report as how only 2% out of 287 people inoculated died in comparison with 14.9% deaths out of 4,917 people who got infected during the epidemic of smallpox in Boston (Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin 2004). It was this comparative quantitative data that in later years helped in the acceptance of inoculation. The success of Mather and Boylston's inoculation campaign eased the way for the acceptance of Edward Jenner's vaccination.
Salem Witchcraft Trial
Salem Witchcraft trial is one of the darkest chapters in the history of United States. Robert Calef, one of the contemporary writers of Mather, says that it was Cotton Mather who laid the foundation of the Salem witchcraft trial. Cotton Mather was one of the most influential people during that period in Boston and he used that influence in the Salem witchcraft proceedings. Well before the Salem witchcraft accusations, in 1684 Mather published his book ‘Remarkable Providences' (Walker 2001). In this book he described in detail the possession of the children of Goodwin family. Before writing the book Mather actually took the eldest son of the Mather family to his house to observe and do intense study. This book actually gives detailed description of the symptoms of hysteria at the time of a possession. These symptoms were also found within the girls of Salem later. Actually people at that time followed the published work of Mather as a guide to find out the possessed girls.
Cotton Mather was not directly involved in the trials of Salem witchcraft but indirectly influenced the whole process. Cotton Mather’s letter to one of the magistrates, John Richards, of the trial details out the usage of spectral evidence. He also authored a book 'Return of the Ministers' that contained description of the spectral evidences which should be used to detect possession by Satan (Walker 2001). For example, it says that a possessed should be tested for recitation of Lord’s Prayer. This book pretty much acted as the founding stone for the whole trial. In fact Mather was not sure of the spectral evidences. Calef in his book 'More Wonders of the Invisible World' gave an account of the hanging of George Burroughs (Walker 2001). George Burroughs was a minister in Salem. When he was told to recite Lord’s Prayer in front of the judges and hundreds of crowds, he recited it perfectly. In spite of that Mather who was present during the trial told the judges that devil often could transform itself into an angel of light. Judges at that time were highly influenced by Cotton Mather and declared George Burroughs as guilty of witchcraft and hanged him. However, in his book 'The Wonders of the Invisible World', Mather’s feelings about the witchcraft trials sounded anything but resolved. On one occasion he said that evidences against Bridget Bishop were not conclusive. However, in case of George Burroughs where there was not much spectral evidence still Mather described Burroughs as the ringleader of the 10 other witches.
The works of Calef showed Mather as a confused man who triggered the Salem witchcraft proceedings. However, Perry Miller, another researcher on Cotton Mather, in his book 'The New England Mind, from Colony to Province' describes him as a totally confused person in the early part of his career regarding the witch craft trials (Walker 2001). Miller explained in his book that in the later years of Mather's life, he realized that the trials were unjust. Thereupon, Mather felt a deep sense of regret and remorse about the trials. In his diary Mather even said that god would punish him and his family for not trying to stop the proceedings during the Salem witchcraft years. Cotton Mather was more guided by reputation, expectations and contradictions during the early part of his life rather than reasoning, scientific basis and logic.
Major Works of Cotton Mather
Cotton Mather was one of the most famous writers of his generation in US and England. He had more than 400 published documents to his credit most of which were religious sermons, letters and tracts (Harvard University 2003). One of his earlier works was 'Boston Ephemeris' which was published in 1686 and was a farmer’s almanac. This body of work was significant because the almanac contained lot of astronomical and mathematical calculations which were very advanced for his time. Magnolia Christi Americana was by far Mather’s greatest work (Harvard University 2003). It was first published when Mather was 39. It is a short religious history of New England. The book is criticized by many for its poor organization and hard language. Although it cannot be taken as an authentic account of New England history as many incidents do not have any basis but many people describe it as the best available book of the time which gives an account of the history of New England in the 17th century. Another work called 'The Biblia Americana' was also famous. In fact Cotton Mather considered the Biblia Americana as his best work (Harvard University 2003). Biblia Americana was interpretation of Bible from a scientific perspective. Mather tried to establish the fact in this book that science and religion can coexist together and there is no conflict between the two. This is also an unfinished work. Mather wrote seven volumes of this book between 1693 and 1728. 'Christian Philosopher', another famous work of Cotton Mather, was written on the same subject as Biblia Americana. In Biblia Americana Mather tried to provide a scientic view of the religion. In Christian Philosopher, Mather tried to provide a religious view of science (Harvard University 2003). Other famous works of Cotton Mather include 'Ornaments of the Daughter of Zion', 'Wonders of the Invisible World', 'Decennium Luctuosom: A History of Long War', 'Pillars of Salt', 'The Negro Christianized', 'Bonerfacius', 'Theopolis Americana' and 'Manductio ad Ministerium' (Harvard University 2003). His works provided a basis for the next generation historians of America. His works in the area of farmer’s almanac was also a pioneering work in that field. His book 'Manductio ad Ministerium' furnishes the basis of laws and worked as a guide book for political houses and ministers. Books like Biblia Americana and Christian Philosopher may not successfully resolve the conflict between religion and science but definitely generate a lot of inquisitive questions in the minds of the next generation Americans.
Conclusion
Cotton Mather hailed from one of the most reputed families of the 17th century New England. His father and grandfather were famous people in Massachusetts. From very early age it was expected that Cotton Mather would also become as famous as his predecessors. He was an influential Puritan minister of New England. He was one of the youngest graduates from Harvard University. The only black spot in his otherwise bright career is his involvement in the Salem village witchcraft trials. Often his involvement in the witchcraft is given more importance than any other of his works. He was the most influential figure in defining the future of New England institutions. His role in the small pox epidemic as a strong proponent of inoculation positions him as the pro-modern man of science of his age. Though he faced strong resistance from contemporary physicians of Boston and Puritans, he together with the help of Boylston paved the way for smallpox inoculation. He is also known for his writing. His works like 'Biblia Americana', 'Christian Philosopher' and 'Magnolia Christi Americana' have influenced a great many writers and thinkers of the subsequent centuries. Cotton Mather remains as one of the most controversial as well as most influential thinker of his generation.
Work Cited
Best, M. Neuhauser, D. and Slavin, L. "Cotton Mather, you dog, dam you! I’l inoculate you with this; with a pox to you": smallpox inoculation, Boston, 1721. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2004. Web. 16 Dec 2013 <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1758062/pdf/v013p00082.pdf>
Blake, John B. The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721-1722. The New England Quarterly. 1952. Web. 16 Dec 2013 < <http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/362582?uid=3739840&uid=2129&uid=2134&uid=373282421&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3&uid=373282411&uid=3739256&uid=60&sid=21103133122517>
Georgia State University (GSU). Biography: Cotton Mather (1662/3-1727/8). The Mather Porject. 2011. Web. 16 Dec 2013 <http://matherproject.org/node/22>
Harvard University. Doing Good in the World: Cotton Mather and the Origins of Modern Philanthropy. Documentary History of Philanthropy and Voluntarism in America. 2003. Web. 16 Dec 2013 <http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/phall/08.%20Mather.pdf>
Walker, Rachel. Cotton Mather. Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive and Transcription Project. 2001. Web. 16 Dec 2013 < http://salem.lib.virginia.edu/people/c_mather.html>
