As a girls softball coach, I have had a long-time interest in training the athletes I coach to help them become better athletes on the field as well as better people -- characterized by self-discipline, resilience, teamwork, sportsmanship, and goal orientation -- off the field. I have found throughout several years of experience that these are not easy qualities to instill in young women as the game of girls softball is not an easy sport to learn let alone master. Observational learning and the opportunities it offers for improvement in the level of play in my team are myriad. Both the theory and its applications, I have realized, can help develop the life skills the young women on my teams will need to excel both on and off the field.
A brief definition of observational learning and a thorough explanation of its history are in order. Observational learning is generally the way people, since the Dawn of Civilization, have learned and acquired new motor skills. It was not until a social psychologist named Albert Bandura coined the term in the late 1970s and broke it down into its constituent parts as well as defining its discrete processes.
Bandura broke down observational learning into attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (McLeod, internet). Bandura theorized that attention occurs when the individual notices something, especially something new, in his environment. Retention is a process of storing what the observer paid attention to in various parts of the brain related to memory and, as the word suggests, being able to remember the observed behavior, an integral part of observational learning. Motor reproduction, especially in the case of softball techniques and skills, involves the ability to copy what was observed. Lastly, motivation invokes, or borrows, a large part of its definition from the realm of behavioral psychology. For example, when the environment "emits" a consequence for being able to reproduce the behavior, motivation (punishment or reward) is an integral part of observational learning. In the realm of coaching girls softball, upon investigating Bandura's theory of observational learning, it became clearer how to both improve my coaching and the attendant performance of the softball team, both as individual players and as a cohesive unit.
Bandura's theory ascribes attention as the first component of observational learning. There is a plethora of secondary research which is focused on this discrete component. According to Yussen (1973), it is easier to learn via observation (paying attention) when the activity being learned is being demonstrated by a model who is either punished or rewarded for performance of the activity. Thus, a new skill set will involve a higher level of attentional involvement as a result of arousal when consequences such as punishment or reward are observed in a behavioral model. This phenomenon is called vicarious consequence (Yussen, 1973, p. 2).
Although Yussen used preschoolers and second graders as subjects in the study, the results yielded were presumably universal among adults as well. Subject responses were measured along two aspects of attention, duration of attention and frequency of attention. If applied to a hypothetical scenario on the softball practice field, both duration and frequency of attention (according to this research) could be improved if verbal rewards were given to subjects who succeeded in a task and punishment (such as the withholding of verbal praise for the same subject). For example, during batting practice, subjects who successfully made contact with the ball would be praised while the same subject would be offered a "suggested" improvement although verbal praise would be withheld. Upon reflection, another hypothetical scenario that could be utilized would be the offering of a reward such as being allowed to choose the length of practice for the day to the model. Not only would the model improve her performance but, it seems intuitive, that successive "subjects", i.e. players, would improve their ability to make contact with the ball if offered a shortened practice. However, as this research suggested, it is important "minimize" the punishment as to avoid a lack of attentional involvement (Yussen, 1973, p. 17).
Another line of inquiry that has been pursued recently with regard to attention during observational learning is guidance. Success in learning acquisition has been shown when a limited amount of guidance is provided to subjects initially learning a task, as they pay more attention to what is necessary to retain (Schmidt & Lee, 2011, p. 396). For example, the usage of a practice helmet during batting practice, may help batters learn better which is predicated on the notion of reducing fear of error and injury but, as other research suggests, too much guidance, or "guidance as needed" is highly-correlated with poorer performance and less attentional involvement (Schmidt & Lee, 2011, p.397).
As batting can be a complex task, it is, according to research findings, a better strategy to model, i.e. teach, the skill as a whole rather than breaking the batting technique into discrete components, such as proper grip of the bat, proper stance, how to hit to opposite field vs. "pulling" the ball, proper follow-through, and proper "exiting" of the batter's box to run to first base. Researchers have shown that this complex set of techniques and mechanics is better learned by demonstration with a limited amount of guidance (Schmidt & Lee, 2011, p. 387). For my purposes as a coach, I would speculate that manually assisting the batter in properly holding the bat would be the only step I should be directly involved in order to achieve the targeted goal -- making ball contact. Other skills such as proper fielding, pitching, and base running could be similarly taught, with an expectation of more attentional involvement and less distraction.
Other studies have revealed a positive correlation between a model's social power and attentional involvement of subjects. For example, Brewer and Wann (1998) found that certain motor tasks such as assembling a puzzle were done more efficiently when modeled by a subject with three levels of social power: referent, legitimate, or expert. Those models who were introduced as experts were observed to engage the greatest amount of undistracted attention (Brewer and Wann, 1998, p. 9). The implications of this study are manifold in my avocation as a softball coach. The more social power I have established with the team in terms of demonstrating my expertise in softball (and, in particular, softball coaching), the more attention I will garner from my players. By appointing players who have more experience than other players to the role of model, I have observed less attentional involvement on the part of the players being taught. My assistant coach also commands less social power and, as a consequence, is generally not as engaging with the players as I have grown accustomed to, as my expertise has been recognized by players and throughout the league. This study has vast implications from an observational learning standpoint.
Retention is closely related to attention but involves cognition and memory, both short-term and long-term. Practice is an assured way to increase retention during observational learning. The brain, according to Oouchida, Suzuki, Aizu, Takeuchi and Izumi (2013) has a built-in mirror neuron system (MNS). Drawing upon the research of Rizzolati as well as Buccino et al., parts of the brain have motor-related areas, similar to the homunculus of the motor cortex, that mirror observed behaviors referred to as object-related actions and non-object-related actions. By merely observing certain hand movements, for example, the observer's brain -- as measured by MRIs -- "copies" the movements while simply observing another individual's actions. There is also predictive value to this sort of research. The simulation in the imagination of the observer's brain of the observed behavior relies on the same motor program to predict all feedback information and is later retrieved during the execution of the observed behavior(s) (Oouchida, Suzuki, Aizu, Takeuchi & Izumi, 2013, p. 2). Therefore, the observers' brains are using their MNS to emulate behavior that will be later retrieved when performing the necessary task.
In the case of girls softball coaching and team cohesiveness as well as skill-building, this research underscores the importance of engaging the entire team when a new technique is learned. That is, the players should assemble themselves in a manner where they can individually activate their MNS rather than breaking the team down into its respective positions and assigning them to those spots during practice. It is my hope that this retention and execution due to the observers' MNS will transfer to performance during actual games. The ability to encode, store, and retrieve the information which activates the MNS is an integral part of motor reproduction.
Motor reproduction, for a girls softball team, means practice applying the fundamentals and mechanics of the various aspects of the game to a daily practice regimen. The third part of observational learning, motor reproduction, has been studied extensively by researchers, especially in terms of practice performances (Schmidt & Lee, 2011, p. 347). In fact, the "law of practice" is something I have stressed for years as both a coach and veteran of the armed forces. It is an intuitive, almost obvious, notion that more practice will result in increased proficiency at motor reproduction. As with all other areas of life, this is just as true in sports, drawing my personal experience.
According to Ragsdale (1950), every person has his (or her) individual way of adopting a new skill (Ragsdale, 1950, p. 80). I have noticed this both on and off the field -- form both personal and professional experience. For example, my players each have a unique way, or "style", of throwing the ball, running the bases, batting, and fielding. Even though there is a wide range of styles, everyone on the team displays skills (and differing levels of skill) at the various facets of the game.
Furthermore, many athletes were introduced to the game at different ages. When acquiring a new skill, performance curves are usually large and rapid in the beginning of motor reproduction but become smaller as proficiency at the task increases (Schmidt & Lee, 2011, p. 359). While there is always room for improvement, there is a point where a news skill can be said to be mastered and the curve becomes more stable over time and repetitive practice. When I train my players at something new, for example, laying down a sacrifice bunt, I have observed the learning curve at work. While there is some amount of initial clumsiness in motor reproduction (many bunts will result in pop-ups, for example), once the basic mechanics and execution are mastered, there is a highly-evident tapering off of the learning curve. Another factor considered by researchers is that better equipment used in athletics has better results with higher-skilled athletes than lower-skilled athletes (Ragsdale, p. 81). On the field, I have also observed that, when a more advanced player requests a different kind of bat or purchases a "better" glove, for example, their performance is significantly enhanced whereas less-advanced players do not seem to benefit as much by an equipment change.
Moreover, a routine of distributed as opposed to massed practices seems to work the best. As a result of this research, I have emphasized slightly-longer practice sessions with more breaks between such as "water breaks", "stretching", and other types of intermissions as opposed to daily practice with less intermissions. The implementation of this strategy, i.e. the usage of slightly-less practice, has the effect of overall motor reproduction improvement.
Another excellent strategy in coaching which has its basis in the findings of Bandura's observational learning theory, is the usage of film to help modify behaviors, in effect, observing errors from a more objective standpoint. The usage of film has reduced more common errors during actual games while also gelling the team as a cohesive unit. This is more commonly referred to as modeling and is considered a subprocess of behavioral modification. A significant aspect of observational learning, watching film is an activity that is less stressful than playing or practicing yet it serves its purpose to help players become more efficient in their respective roles as a result of observing their mechanics and on-the-field play in a less-threatening environment (Bryan & Schwartz, 1971, p. 58).
All of the aforementioned processes of observational learning (attention, retention, and motor reproduction) are ineffectual without the last process: motivation. Motivation seems like another intuitive aspect of Bandura's theory, and there is a plethora of research that has been conducted in this area.
Yi and Davis (2003) state that "the symbolic memory of actions will weaken unless the perceived consequences of performing the actions are sufficiently favorable to cause repeated performance". Indeed, their study is highly confirmatory of this assertion. The researchers relate self-efficacy to motivation, and that is charged with a large amount of predictive value with regard to future task performance (Yi & Davis, 2003, p. 150). They also distinguish between immediate and delayed task performance in their study. For example, using a complex task such as the efficacy with computer software, Yi and Davis (2003) observed that immediate task performance increased with respect to a feedback mechanism that involved both self-efficacy and declarative knowledge (Yi & Davis, 2003, p. 151).
More importantly, the aforementioned researchers tied pretraining motivation to learn, in this case, the softball player), as defined by the desire to master their learning, with task performance (Yi & Davis, 2003, p. 152). It is a common practice and is certainly not unique to my coaching strategy to instill the desire to win with self-efficacy. It has been my experience that individual athletes who are motivated to win -- even if their skill level is merely average -- will show a steeper learning curve, an enhanced power function, and, as a result, higher task performance. Their statistics are also positively correlated with the motivation to win, whether the motivation is represented by goals such as improving over last year's team record or some other goal, such as going to finals. I have always stressed that executing what my players have learned in practice and transferring those abilities to the field -- while minimizing costly, mental errors -- is the most important achievement they can accomplish with respect to a game-by-game strategy. Yi & Davis (2003) found that pretraining motivation was, out of all their tested variables, had the highest predictive value with respect to task performance, more so than attentional, retention, or motor reproduction subprocesses of the observational learning process.
One study conducted by Hartjen (1974) found that vicarious reinforcement, self-reinforcement, and external reinforcement are "necessary components of observational learning" (Hartjen, 1974, p.15). Hartjen (1974) also found that subjects performed better when engaged in a previously-modeled activity as opposed to discriminative observation training with respect to self-reinforcement, which plays only a slight role in effective modeling. While the subjects in this study were young grade schoolers, it can be safely presumed that much of these processes are universal across age.
In conclusion, before I was ever familiarized with the theoretical underpinnings of "scientific coaching" using Bandura's observational learning processes, I implemented many of the four subprocesses into my coaching philosophy and regimen.
However, no matter how much I have done to implement Bandura's theories about observational learning (I have taken several teams to the playoffs), it has been difficult to instill the motivation to win. As I have observed, however, the motivation to win increases significantly with every win, gaining momentum. It was difficult to find research that explored a causal relationship between task performance, e.g. winning games as well as procuring individual honors, and the motivation. However, as noted in the earlier study by Hartjen (1974), self-motivation has proved to be an important part of both individual and team performance. My teams come to practice because they are motivated and because they want to win. Based upon my experience, Bandura's observational learning theory has held up to the test of time and has reasonable application and research that has explored its external validity also has merit.
Works Cited
Bandura, A. Social-Learning Theory of Identificatory Processes, Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, edited by Goslin, David A., 213-262. Rand McNally & Company, 1969.
Brewer, K. & Wann, D. (1998). Observational Learning Effectiveness as a Function of Model Characteristics: Investigating the Importance of Social Power. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal,26(1), 1-10.
Bryan, J.H., & Schwartz, T. (1971). Effects of film material upon children's behavior.
Psychological Bulletin,75(1), Jan 1971, 50-59.
Hartjen, R.H. (April 1974). Implications of Bandura's Observational Learning Theory for a Competency Based Teacher Education Model, presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, Illinois, April 1974).
McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bandura - Social Learning Theory. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html on 6/04/14.
Oouchida, Y., Suzuki, E., Naoki, A., Takeuchi, N., & Izumi, S. (2013). Applications Observational Learning in Neurorehabilitation, International Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation,1(146). Retrieved from http://omicsonline.org/2329- 9096/2329-9096-1-146.php?aid=16329 on 6/04/14.
Schmidt, R. S. & Lee, T. D. (2011). Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis (5th Ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Ragsdale, C.E., The forty-ninth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1: Learning and instruction, edited by Henry, Nelson B., 69-91. University of Chicago Press, 1950.
Yi, M. & Davis, F. (2003). Developing and Validating an Observational Learning Model of
Computer Software Training and Skill Acquisition, Information Systems Research,
14(2), 146-169.
Yussen, S. (March 1973). Determinants of Visual Attention and Recall in Observational Learning by Preschoolers and Second Graders, presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development (Philadelphia, Pa., March 29-April 1, 1973).
