Insecure Attachment and Identity Formation Issues
Abstract
This paper will seek to examine the effect of forming insecure attachment in leading to unsuccessful identity achievement in human beings. This question is answered by examining the attachment theory and relating it to identity formation. It will also examine how these two issues affect healthy development in each stage of the life span based on Erickson’s psychosocial developmental stages. According to the attachment theory, attachment mainly determines different aspects of human relationships and interaction. This in turn, leads to social and emotional development issues in individuals during different life stages. Some of the problems identified included emotional regulation, internalizing behavioral problems, externalizing behavioral problems, depression, learning impairment, and depression.
Insecure Attachment and Identity Formation
In infancy and childhood, attachment to caregivers provides sense of security when faced by perceived dangers. At this stage, positive attachment to a caregiver is critical to a child or infant since it ensures positive social and emotional development. The form of attachment is mainly regulated by the interaction between the child and the caregiver. This in turn can either lead to secure or insecure attachment (Liu, Nagata, Shono, & Kitamura, 2009). In the case of secure attachment, it is created when caregivers have positive interactions with the infant or child and respond to their needs in a timely manner. This leads to the ability to explore freely since such children feel secure around their caregiver or parent. In secure attachment arises when the caregiver’s interaction with the infant or child is inconsistent. This leads to reserved children who are not explorative. In turn, this leads to children who are withdrawn, lack proper identity, and have poor social and emotional skills (Liu, Nagata, Shono, & Kitamura, 2009). This implies that insecure attachment can lead to unsuccessful identify achievement in individuals.
In the adolescent and adulthood stages, attachment changes because of an internal working model that is unique to each individual. This model determines associations. This internal working model relates to experiences, social and emotional interaction. Insecure attachment in adults also leads to social and emotional issues that affect an individual’s identity. Below is a critical discussion of the effects of insecure attachment and unsuccessful identity formation based on Erickson’s psychosocial developmental stages (Liu, Nagata, Shono, & Kitamura, 2009).
This is the first stage in Erickson’s psychosocial developmental theory. According to the theory, at this stage, the infant is highly reliant on parents or caregivers to meet their basic needs such as feeding, care, and warmth just to mention a few. Therefore, an infant’s interaction with parents or other caregivers may lead to either trust or mistrust. If the interaction with parents and caregivers is encouraging, the child will develop trust. Additionally, according to Moutsiana, Fearon, Murray, Cooper, Goodyer, Johnstone, & Halligan (2014) this leads to better relationships, and fewer behavioral problems. On the other hand, negative associations may lead to the infant mistrusting his or her surroundings. This leads to insecure attachment. In turn, the infant may develop avoidance behavior towards, poor peer relationships, as well as, behavioral problem. This has a direct effect on identity formation since it may lead to the infant developing doubt, withdrawal, and lack of confidence Fearon, Bakermans-Kranenburg, van IJzendoorn, Lapsley, & Roisman, 2010).
According to Moutsiana et al, (2014) the development of insecure attachment at infancy has a negative effect on the individual’s emotion regulation later in adulthood. According to the research conducted, it is evident that the neural makeup of an infant can be greatly affected by insecure attachment and early experiences hence leading to poor emotion regulation in adulthood. Moutsiana et al, (2014) write that early negative experiences and poor quality of care in infants may have structural effects on the prefrontal and limbic regions of the brain. This in turn explains the individual’s ability to control emotions in later adulthood. Based on the findings of the article, this is mainly because of the fact that early attachment in infancy forms the basis within which emotional regulation is developed. Therefore, we can conclude that insecure attachment and identity issues in infancy can result in poor emotional regulation in adulthood.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
This is the second stage in Erickson’s psychosocial developmental theory. During this stage, toddlers start becoming self-sufficient due to the Increase in motor and cognitive skills. In addition, toddlers often explore their surroundings more as compared to infants. According to Erickson, the support and encouragement of caregivers and parents is critical at this stage. The main reason for this is that it helps increase the toddler’s self-sufficiency. It also helps enhance cognitive and motor skills through repetition. With excellent support and secure attachment, the toddler will become autonomous. On the other hand, if the toddler has insecure attachment with the caregiver and lacks support they will most likely develop shame and doubt.
Frosch, Cox & Goldman (2001) in their research examine the effects on insecure attachment in toddlers. According to the article, insecure attachment greatly affects cognitive and literacy development in children. Based on the results of the study conducted by the authors, it is clear cognitive and literacy development are greatly dependent on toddler-parent association. The experiment conducted shows that parents who were warm and supportive in the reading exercises led to children who were willing to read and learn. This is mainly because the toddlers were more focused and enthusiastic about their book reading interaction. In addition, these toddlers were also highly complaint and exhibited a good mood. Secure attachment also greatly stimulated cognitive development.
On the other hand, Frosch, Cox & Goldman (2001) point out that when parents were hostile and intrusive leading to insecure attachment the toddler’s cognitive and learning skills were greatly affected. This is attributable to the fact that the toddlers lacked focus, and were less enthusiastic about their reading interaction. In addition, insecure attached toddlers were not compliant and did not exhibit good moods. This implies that insecure attachment and identity issues greatly affect a toddler’s cognitive and literal skills (Frosch, Cox & Goldman, 2001).
Initiative vs. Guilt
During this stage, children have developed increased cognitive, speech and motor skills as compared to the first two stages. This is a direct result of their increased ability to learn and understand their surroundings and environment. At this stage, they are in a position to accomplish different tasks by themselves and this leads directly to initiative. Initiative is mainly a direct result of wanting to pursue specific tasks with a purpose of accomplishing them. Decision-making is also developed at this stage and this may lead to guilt. During this stage, the support of caregivers and parents is critical. This is attributable to the fact that it helps increase the child’s initiative nature. This in turn, leads to secure attachment. On the other hand, if support for the child’s activities is lacking, guilt will develop. Similarly, this will lead to insecure attachment.
One of the problems posed by insecure attachment at this stage is the risk of externalizing problems. A meta-analysis carried out by Fearon et al (2010), shows that a large number of studies conducted support that in preschool children insecure attachment is a significant predictor for externalizing problems. These are behavioral problems directed towards their external environment and may include dishonesty, aggressiveness, and disobedience just to mention a few. Furthermore, the meta-analytic study also reveals that the significance of insecure attachment was greater in boys as compared to girls at this stage. According to Fearon et al (2010), this is attributable to the fact that boys are at a greater risk of externalizing behaviors.
Industry vs. Inferiority
This is the fourth psychosocial development stage proposed by Erikson. During this stage, children have increased awareness of self. This is because of the increase in their understanding of their environment and the world surrounding them. It also directly results from an understating of the cause and effect of their actions to the external world. Additionally, children at this stage show an increase in independence. Children will also learn complex skills such as speech, mathematics, and general knowledge. Children at this stage also enhance their interest in special interests. Secure attachment at this stage is important as it helps develop industry in the child. In turn, this helps build self-confidence. On the other hand, insecure attachment at this stage leads to inferiority and identity formation issues. In turn, it also leads to low self-confidence.
According to O'Connor, Collins & Supplee (2012) insecure attachment between children and mothers has a significant effect in predicting both internalized and externalized behaviors in late childhood. The internalized behaviors include depression, and social withdrawal. On the other hand, externalized behaviors include over activity, impulsivity, and aggression (O'Connor, Collins & Supplee, 2012). The main result of this as noted in the article is that children experiencing insecure attachment may tend to see themselves as unworthy and others as untrustworthy. Furthermore, it also has a negative effect on the child’s learning ability. O'Connor, Collins & Supplee (2012) write that children with secure attachment have higher quality relationships with their teachers as compared to those with insecure attachment. This poor relationship with teachers means that children with insecure maternal attachment are at risk of poor academic performance.
Identity vs. Role confusion
The fifth developmental stage proposed by Erikson is the young adult stage. This developmental stage mainly consists of adolescents in their teenage years. This stage mainly acts as a transition phase from childhood to adulthood. Adolescents are mainly concerned with the image they portray in their surroundings. This results in increased self-awareness, which continues to grow and develop from the previous stage. Adolescents also develop a form of sexual identity. This is mainly because of biological changes that they experience during this developmental stage. At this stage, individuals may result to experimenting in order to find a balance in life. Greater independence in beliefs such as religion, politics, and other aspects of the society are also experienced during this developmental stage. This mainly results from differences in what they have learnt in childhood and new information and experiences. Secure attachment in this stage is critical in developing intimacy while insecure attachment may lead to isolation and withdrawal.
One of the main effects of insecure attachment and identity issues is the development of behavioral and commitment problems in adolescents (Pace & Zappulla, 2011). According to the article, a large number of adolescents are involved in behavioral problems. These include both internalizing problems (anxiety, unipolar disorders) and externalizing problems (conduct disorder, operational defiance). The authors note that when it comes to externalizing behaviors adolescents with insecure attachment at home are most likely going to deviate from the norm. Furthermore, the lack of emotional control and ease of distress resulting from insecure attachment also increases the risk of internalizing behavior in adolescents (Pace & Zappulla, 2011).
Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage is the sixth of Erikson’s developmental theory. This is the stage wherein young adults form intimate, loving relationships with other people. This formation of intimate relationships is critical in the intimacy vs. isolation stage. The relationships may be romantic nature and it may also be close friendships. Intimate relationships as described by Erikson are characterized by honesty, love and closeness. If one is able to resolve the conflict, then they are able to develop deep and meaningful relationships with others. Success in this stage leads to formation of strong relationships while failure leads to loneliness and isolation. An individual who retreats in isolation will fear a committed relationship.
`In adult relationships, the same patterns of attachment identified in childhood are parallel to those that characterize adults. In individuals with a strong and secure base, it is expected that the interaction with their intimate partner is committed, collaborative and open. In contrast to this, individuals who possess an insecure attachment style heavily rely on their partner for comfort during distress or they may be distrustful or may not openly seek support in the relationship (Pittman et al., 2011). Whatever the secure base representations by each individual in a relationship or partnership, it will affect significantly on how each partner will respond and engage in the relationship. These internal working models are important in facilitating understanding of how intimacy might be expressed in intimate relationships, and additionally may have an impact on resolution of Erikson’s psychosocial stage of intimacy vs. isolation (Pittman et al., 2011). Generativity vs. Stagnation
This is the seventh development stage in an individual’s life. Individuals contributing to the world characterize this stage. This is mainly because this is the stage where most individuals have attained the highest individual freedom of thought, expression, and actions. Individuals in the middle –age adulthood act as role models and guide the younger generation. Therefore, it is critical for them to act in a specific manner in order to set the right example. Maturity is also achieved during this stage. At this stage is an adult is productive in society, they will achieve generativity. This is because of feeling accomplished and highly industrious. On the other hand, if a middle-age adult is not productive enough they will experience stagnation. This results from feeling under accomplished in society.
Liu, Nagata, Shono, & Kitamura (2009), conducted a study to examine the effects of adult attachment on university students in the middle-age adult stage. From the study, it is clear that insecure attachment directly correlates to life’s stresses and depression. The study concludes that securely attached adults were less affected by depression as compared to insecurely attached adults (Liu, Nagata, Shono, & Kitamura, 2009). According to the article, this is a topic examined by numerous researchers in the past and the general conclusion has been that insecure attachment style in adulthood plays a critical role in increasing an individual’s depression risk factor. The article recommends that preventive work can be carried out on insecure individuals in order to provide the right intervention for depression.
Integrity vs. Despair
This is the final developmental stage based on Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. This stage is mainly composed of senior citizens who have retired from active participation in society. At this stage of life, productivity has decreased significantly because of old age, disease, or other biological factors. It is usually a stage of reflection where individuals examine their accomplishments in life. If one is positive about the life that has been lived integrity is developed. This is mainly attributed to the fact that an individual at this stage mainly views their life as successful, productive, and satisfactory. However, despair may result at this stage if one has a negative view of the life lived. This can result from viewing one’s life as unsuccessful, unproductive, and unsatisfactory. Despair is also a result of knowing that the time to become useful in life has passed.
According to Paradiso, Naridze & Holm-Brown (2012) insecure attachment is one of the predictors of late-onset depression. This form of depression is experienced in the older adult developmental stage. It is attributable to the fact that individuals that have never been depressed showed secure attachment styles while individuals with both early and late onset depression showed greater levels of insecure attachment. The article states that early childhood experiences may form working models in individuals that may affect their psychosocial development even in old age (Paradiso, Naridze & Holm-Brown, 2012).
Therefore, insecure attachment that may have formed in childhood because of negative experiences may have an effect on an individual in their late-life leading to depression. The study also shows that the main cause of this is social maladaptation resulting from previous negative experiences. The evidence in the article is important in the diagnosis, treatment, and development of effective programs aimed at addressing depression in older adults (Paradiso, Naridze & Holm-Brown, 2012).
References
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Frosch, C. A., Cox, M. J., & Goldman, B. D. (2001). Infant-Parent Attachment and Parental and Child Behavior during Parent-Toddler Storybook Interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47(4), 445-74.
Liu, Q., Nagata, T., Shono, M., & Kitamura, T. (2009). The effects of adult attachment and life stress on daily depression: a sample of Japanese university students. Journal Of Clinical Psychology, 65(7), 639-652.
Moutsiana, C., Fearon, P., Murray, L., Cooper, P., Goodyer, I., Johnstone, T., & Halligan, S. (2014). Making an Effort to Feel Positive: Insecure Attachment in Infancy Predicts the Neural Underpinnings of Emotion Regulation in Adulthood. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry, 55(9), 999-1008.
O'Connor, E. E., Collins, B. A., & Supplee, L. (2012). Behavior problems in late childhood: the roles of early maternal attachment and teacher–child relationship trajectories. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 265-288.
Pace, U., & Zappulla, C. (2011). Problem Behaviors in Adolescence: The Opposite Role Played by Insecure Attachment and Commitment Strength. Journal Of Child And Family Studies, 20(6), 854-862.
Paradiso, S., Naridze, R., & Holm-Brown, E. (2012). Lifetime romantic attachment style and social adaptation in late-onset depression. International Journal Of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(10), 1008-1016
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