Human development patterns allow us in making generalizations concerning various stages as the infancy phase, childhood phase, adolescence, and finally the adulthood stage. For the first year following the birth, a baby is referred to as an infant. The childhood stage begins in the second year after birth and stretches until adolescence. Childhood stage is often divided into early childhood and middle childhood. Early childhood includes the pre-school years whereas middle childhood stage includes elementary school years, through the fifth or sixth grade. The adolescence stage is the second last stage of human development before adulthood. This stage is quite difficult to define owing to the fact that it varies in its onset and termination from one individual to the other.
However, the adolescence stage is generally defined as the stage between 10 and 18 years of the age of a teen. As far as the rate of growth is concerned across these development stages; at infancy, there is rapid development and growth, which, although at reduced rate, stretches to early childhood. The middle childhood period is characterized by slow and steady growth and the attainment of maturation. At this stage, there are still relatively small differences between the sexes until adolescence. The adolescence stage is characterized by accelerated development and growth coupled with the attainment of sexual desire and maturity.
Physical activity
The traits and behaviors of today’s children, together with their genetics, forms the determinant factors of their development and growth which include; physical, psychological and mental health; and also their cognitive, physical, and even academic performances (Broekhoff, p. 75-87). The advances in technology in this modern society have greatly contributed to the current sedentary lifestyle, which has significantly changed the children’s phenotype in comparison to the past few decades. Children today, for instance, have a higher BMI (body mass index) and weigh more than those of the earlier generations (Forbes, 38-43). Behaviorally, the majority of today’s children do not engage in moderately or vigorously intense physical activity to the recommended tune of at least 60 minutes each day. It is this lack of engagement in a physical activity that has led to the larger prevalence of conditions such as pediatric obesity, which is a fitness disease (muscular strength, cardio-respiratory capacity, and flexibility), and high risk of attack by another disease.
Adults who engage in regular and consistent physical activity possess lower rates and risks of chronic diseases (such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, coronary heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and even some cancers), and also less likely to perish or die prematurely. Even though the ill effects of these chronic diseases mainly manifest in adults, there is the need of better understanding that their developments begin at childhood and adolescence stages (Broekhoff, p. 75-87). Evidence for health effects (both direct and indirect) of physical exercise has been thoroughly reported, and the growing need for participating in physical activity for stimulation and maintenance of chronic adaptations have well been equally documented.
Children (both physically active and those inactive) do progress through similar stages of development. Provision of physical activity opportunities for teens is crucial, not primarily to affect their development stages but to offer sufficient opportunities or platforms for the development of other skills. Sound and well-structured curriculum for physical education are based on focused on an understanding of the development stages and growth patterns, which are critical to providing necessary movement experiences, required for promoting skill developments such as motor skills (Hills, Neil, & Timothy, p. 533-545). In motor skills, for instance, children and adolescents’ mastery of the key motor skills is strongly connected to their physical activity, which in turn can contribute to their social, cognitive and physical development.
As earlier stated, maturation can be referred to as the attainment of full adulthood. In biological growth studies, the process of maturation is typically evaluated through sexual, somatic and skeletal maturity. Given that same hormones are responsible for the regulation of sexual, skeletal and somatic maturations in adolescence, it is therefore reasonably right to expect similar physical activity effects on these maturity indicators. Discussions on effects of physical activity, particularly on sexual maturity, focus more on the female gender other than the males. A classical example is the age of first menses for the young girls. With regards to puberty, recent research has shown that the start of puberty occurs earlier in today’s girls as compared to those of past generations. There is much speculation relating this phenomenon to increased adiposity. The trends of physical activity are influenced by physical challenges occurring during adolescence, development of sex characteristics that are considered secondary alongside other cultural and social factors (Rolland-Cachera et al. p. 573-578). It is, therefore, essential that adolescents get access to the necessary physical activity plans that consider both socio-cultural and physical changes in preparedness for a lifetime engagement in physical activity since inactive physical activity at adolescence may stretch to adulthood (Broekhoff, p. 75-87). Adequate physical activity engagements at puberty are essential for the optimum development of bones and prevention of increased adiposity.
Besides rapid height increase that is conspicuously evident in adolescents, other occurring changes in human body proportions have significant implications physical exercise and sports offered in physical activity education and programs (Hills, et al. 533-545). For instance, as girls and boys advance their puberty stage, biacromial breadth (width of the shoulder) grows more in the male gender as compared to their female counterparts. On the same note, bicristal breadth (size of the hip) is quite similar to the early childhood. However, similar hip-shoulder width ratio seen during early childhood tends to decrease in boys while either remains more or less constant or rather increase in girls during the adolescent stage. Body propositions, specifically skeletal dimensions, tend not to be influenced more by physical activity, but rather it is the body proportions influences fitness evaluation, performance success, and also the various types of activities that one may wish to be involved (Forbes, 38-43). For instance, people with wider shoulders and longer arms have a competitive advantage in tasks that involve throwing.
Whereas all teens need the “expertise” in movement skills, those who fail to acquire these fundamental movement skills, for instance, with the case of motor skills, will most likely encounter problems while transitioning their repertoire movements towards particular engagements and contexts in physical exercise. The engagements in physical activity require proper movement repertoire both within and without the school setup. Just like it has been found by several research works, people who are competent in doing physical skills stay more active in their entire lives. Kids who are not physically skilled tend not to be actively involved in physical activity as compared to their more experienced counterparts. As a result, the latter category stands the higher risk of obesity and overweight complications. The building blocks of complicated and dynamic actions are the fundamental skills which complete settings such as physical activities, exercise, and sports (Rolland-Cachera et al. p. 573-578).
Nutrition
As early as pre-conception, nutrition (both from paternal and maternal sides), probably plays a crucial role in determining the future aging condition of an individual. The result of this is due to the fact that both spermatogenesis (found in the father), and oogenesis (found in the mother) become subject to the influence of mutation. The essentially of the maternal nutrition is to ensure proper growth and development of the offspring. In the case of paternal nutrition, the focus of the potential nutritional function involves the sperm, as it contains the genetically-inclined information which should be passed over to the offspring. There is sufficient evidence that smoking, particularly through the oxidant effect, does alter the sperm’s genetic material in such ways that increase the child’s risk of hematological malignancy (Malina, Claude, & Oded, 15-34). Some of the potential antioxidants include vitamins C and E, as both play essential roles in protecting the male sperm cells.
The intakes that are recommended for pregnant women are largely increased purposely in support of infant and fetal development and growth. At fetus, significant levels of nutrients are required for the synthesis of fetal tissues and offer stores of iron and energy for the postnatal period. In normal pregnancies, these nutrients are received from the diet of the mother and also the mother’s stores.
The above-discussed insights show us one conclusion that unborn children require well-nourished and healthy mother for proper growth and development. As such, a mother should gain some weight during the pregnancy period so as to assist nourish the growing and developing baby. The result of insufficient weight in pregnant women often leads to babies being born with too little weight (also referred to as low birth weight) (Malina, et al. p. 15-34). For instance, babies weighing below 2.5 kg at birth, tend to have increased risks of both mental and physical health issues. These babies may also be the subject to malnutrition and infections as compared to those with normal birth weight. Women, therefore, should acquire at least 11 kgs when they are pregnant. Failure to attain this threshold lowers the chances of the baby’s survival and even decline in the baby’s health. This principle applies even to the overweight women for the sake of their babies’ health and therefore overweight mothers do not have to contemplate losing weight.
The process of gaining weight by pregnant women should be achieved at a steady and smooth rate. Sudden occurrences of weight increments should be drawn to the attention of health professionals. For instance, the first three months following a conception should attract approximately 1-2 kgs; in the last six months, pregnant women should earn around 0.5kg every week. However, in cases where a total of 11 kgs have been gained after 6-7 months following the conception, continual weight gain should be practiced, though at a moderate level. It should be known that babies tend to put most of their weights during the final months of pregnancy.
The nutrition of women during both pregnancy and lactation should put more focus on three micronutrients (i.e., iron, iodine and vitamin A), and extra intake of energy or energy expenditure reduction. Below are some of the essential nutritional actions in relation to pregnant women; both pregnant and breastfeeding mothers require extra food, particularly those foods known to be reliable sources of iron. Again, they (pregnant women) should take at least one extra meal per day. There is also the need to reduce energy expenditure in pregnant mothers; this can be achieved by a considerable retraction from strenuous activities. One of the easiest ways of passing iodine, which one of the three key micronutrients is through the intake of iodised salt in the diet of pregnant women. Again, they should eat those foods which are richly-endowed with vitamin A (these foods include mango, papaya, greens, and carrots) alongside animal meals (such as the liver and fish). In malarious regions, for instance, they should always sleep under insecticide-treated nets on their beds. The other important factor that pregnant women need to consider is de-worming. The de-worming exercise should be done using albendazole or mebendazole, especially during every third trimester of their pregnancies. In summary, pregnant mothers require a well and proper balanced diet which contains an assortment of foods including those from various food groups like fruits, animal products, cereals, vegetables, and legumes.
Anemic pregnant women often feel tired and weak. This condition will translate to their babies being born when they have lacked the supply of iron for approximately 3-6 months. Consequently, their breast milk will lack sufficient iron (Malina, et al. p. 15-34). Therefore, in order to keep both themselves and their babies healthy, breastfeeding and pregnant women should have posses sufficient iron. They, therefore, need a daily intake of iron-rich diets like dried legumes, beans, dark green vegetable leafs, heart, kidney and the liver. Also, pregnant mothers should perform first antenatal checkups latest during the fourth month following her conception. Their urines should be checked for excess proteins and sugar while their blood should be checked for malaria (to investigate signs of being infected). For all the babies to grow well and become healthy, they must feed on the mothers’ breast milk, which is the food produced by the body of their mothers specifically for them, and has all the nutritional requirements that a healthy child would need. Lactating women require two additional meals (at the very least) of whatever supplied to them at home.
Additionally, doses of vitamin A should be administered to them once in between delivery and approximately six weeks following the delivery. Through this vitamin A administration in their mothers, babies will be able to receive an adequate supply of the same during their first six months. Again, the first six months of the baby requires that he/she is exclusively fed from the mothers’ breast. In addition to the dose of vitamin A and additional meals, breastfeeding women equally need drinking water to the tune of one liter at minimum, iodised salts and foods rich in vitamin A (similar to the ones discussed at the fatal development stage)
The most common feature associated with infancy, childhood, and the adolescence stages are their characterized increased growth and development. This aspect of rapid growth and development, in turn, puts more demand in relation to their nutrition (Malina, et al. p. 15-34). Infants and small children lack a well-developed nutrient store in their bodies, and as such become more vulnerable to most of the infections. Also, their bodies have larger surface area to volume ratio, leading to increased BMR (basal metabolic rate), resulting in a proportional increment in nutrient requirements.
During puberty, adolescents do undergo rapid growth and development, often referred to as “pubertal growth spurt”. During this stage, their body rapidly increases (both in terms of height and weight). As a result, they require a nutrient intake which is relatively proportional to their growth rate. Right after birth, the body’s growth and development rate become so high. After that, the rate of growth and development slows down up to the age of nearly 12-14 years.
Next is the pubertal period (between 15-16 years), where the sudden rise in growth and development is observed. After which, rate of growth again slows down. Macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and micronutrient requirements, on per kilogram basis, are highest at the infancy and childhood stages compared to the subsequent developmental stages (Rolland-Cachera et al. p. 573-578). The higher demands of nutrients are influenced by the various biological processes that occur during these phases of development and growth. For instance, the frequent cell division that occurs when growth takes place, demands energy, fat, and protein leading to high nutritional demands. Additionally, the increased demands for nutrients at these development stages are again reflected in the daily demands by these development groupings. These increased nutrient demands include energy, water, and fundamental fatty acids.
In the case of adulthood (say 19-50 years), there is a slight variation in the nutritional requirement, majorly dependent on gender. Males, for instance, demand more of vitamins K, C, B1, B2, B3, and zinc. On the other hand, females demand more of iron than their male counterparts of the same age. During the later adulthood ages (say above 60 years), elderly individuals are vulnerable to issues that are nutritional in nature resulting from age-related developments and changes within their body (Malina, et al. p. 15-34). Some of the possible nutritional problems encountered in late old age include; digestion, psychological, nutrition absorption, renal, sensory and other physical problems. Therefore, some of the specific nutritional demands of the elderly people include; increased demand for vitamin D (for reduction of bone-related fractures or loss), and emphasis on healthy foods, as supplements are left to play the secondary role.
Perspective of North America with the rest of the world
A staggering ratio of two-thirds of adults in North America is overweight, with a further one-quarter falling within the obese category. Again, one in every four Americans is either diabetic or pre-diabetic (Rolland-Cachera et al. p. 573-578). Obviously, physical exercise and diet are the essential factors here. For instance, The National Institute of Health, states that among the six highly ranked death causes in the US, four of them are related to unhealthy dietary ("Why Are Americans Less Healthy?"). The reasons attributed to this phenomenon are briefly discussed below.
In the US for instance, the leading two crops that are grown are soy and corn. In relation to this case, the popular ingredients that are made out of these crops include corn syrup and soybean oil. Two critical elements come into existence here; first, the corn syrup has high fructose. Secondly, the soybean oil is hydrogenated. It has been proven that high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is one of the leading factors behind acquiring excess weight and other poor heath results. Again, the soybean is contaminated with large amounts of the potent herbicide glyphosate, which makes it one of the most common unhealthy ingredients being produced in most of the processed foods. Also, more than 85% of the corn produced in the US are genetically engineered (GE), further increasing the risk of contamination with glyphosate. According to the Environmental Working Group (EWG), in their recent report, Americans eat more of GE foods each year ("Why Are Americans Less Healthy?").
A similar health-related study by EWG showed that samples of blood from newborns are contaminated with an average of 287 toxins, such as fire retardants, mercury, pesticides, and other chemicals arising from the non-stick items. This research finding shows that births occur when babies are already loaded with chemicals which are toxic in nature giving the sign of high exposure to toxic in the country.
Just like nutrition and lifestyle, fitness and other forms of physical activity underline fair share of the well-being and health of individuals. Whereas most of the students in the US exercise at frequencies of two or more instances each week, they still rank relatively lower than nearly half of the countries when it comes to exercise frequency. In the US, as noted by the US Surgeon General report on “Physical Activity and Health,” there is a high rate of obesity especially in adolescents (Rolland-Cachera et al. p. 573-578). Promotion of healthful physical activity is essential to combating the epidemic of obesity while at the same time establishing certain habits which can be sustained through to adulthood.
Work Cited
Broekhoff, J. "The Effect of Physical Activity on Physical Growth and Development." Effects of Physical Activity on Children. Champaign, Illinois, Human Kinetics Books (2006): 75-87.
Forbes, Gilbert B. “Human Body Composition: Growth, Aging, Nutrition, and Activity”. Springer Science & Business Media, (2012): 38-43.
Hills, Andrew P., Neil A. King, and Timothy P. Armstrong. "The Contribution of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviours to the Growth and Development of Children and Adolescents." Sports Medicine 37.6 (2007): 533-545.
Rolland-Cachera, M. F., et al. "Influence of Macronutrients on Adiposity Development: A Follow up Study of Nutrition and Growth from 10 months to 8 years of age." InternationalJournal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 19.8 (2015): 573-578.
Malina, Robert M., Claude Bouchard, and Oded Bar-Or. “Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity”. Human Kinetics, (2014): 15-34.
"Why Are Americans Less Healthy?" Mercola.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 May 2016. <http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2013/01/23/united-states-health-ranking.aspx>.
