African resistance to colonial powers has an extensive history that dates before the nineteenth century. The responses to colonial rule varied by location, religion, and resources that included both violent and nonviolent tactics. It is important to note that most rebellions were complex and strategically planned in the rising intolerance of colonial rule on the continent of Africa. Although Europeans aimed to divide and conquer, they did not always successfully change relationships among African communities who worked together in resistance.
Nonetheless, foreign colonial powers were successful in recruiting tribes to assist in conquering other tribes who were in conflict. For Example, “conflict between the Fante and Asante, which predated British designs on the kingdom of Asante, motivated the Fante to join the British against the Asante, who at the time seemed to be their greatest threat” (Talton, n.d.). In other words, Europeans orchestrated the task to conquer African tribes, but those in resistance faced other African proxies on a local level. Overall, a conflict between tribes made it much easier for Europeans to recruit African soldiers who participated in the kidnapping of Africans into enslavement and other colonial acts.
There has been extensive research conducted on slave rebellions and their respective leaders, but very seldom is the role of women discussed in these revolts. This fact is what inspired me to research the roles of women in slave rebellions in both in the United States and Africa. Although the role of women during colonization is very complex, most of my research found subtle acts of resistance, such as practicing traditional religious beliefs which were forbidden by slave owners or passing on traditions and beliefs to their children. However, as I began to dig deeper into the roles of women, I found more active roles in resistance, such as leading or orchestrating slave rebellions against colonial rule. As a result, I have come to the conclusion that African women such as Nzinga of Ndongo from the Kingdom of Matamba, Alice Auma of Uganda, and Shona spiritual leader Nehanda Nyakasikana of Zimbabwe, have played significant roles in leading rebellions against colonization and other foreign forces in Africa. Before discussing the roles of the women above and those alike, I will provide a brief summary of colonization and European tactics used to divide ultimately and conquer Africa, which holds everlasting effects to date.
The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 regulated European colonization of Africa, in which “colonial powers superimposed their domains on the African continent” (Rosenberg, 2014). It is important to note that before the conference, the majority of Africa was maintained under traditional and native control besides coastal areas. At the conference colonial, powers created geometric boundaries or territories that they would control which entailed over a thousand indigenous cultures and regions of Africa (Rosenberg, 2014). France controlled most of West Africa, Belgium controlled the Democratic Republic of Congo, Portugal controlled Mozambique and Angola, Germany controlled Namibia and Tanzania, Spain controlled Rio Muni, Italy controlled Somali and a portion of Ethiopia, while Great Britain controlled Egypt, Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Ghana, and Botswana. Also, most of these countries were given new names under their designated country’s rule.
The primary desire to conquer Africa was for economic benefit as Europe aimed to industrialize and expand their influence. Another reason was the competition amongst Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain competing for power” (Iweriebor, n.d.). Africa held many natural resources and unexplored land European powers wished to exploit. The most common tactics used by European forces include Christian missionaries, treaties, and agreements with African chiefs that helped establish colonial rule in tribal territories and other methods to divide and conquer territories. However, it goes without saying that Africans resisted in various ways.
According to a page by the New York Public Library, “Adding to the complexity was the fact that rapid European imperial expansion in Africa did not necessarily change relationships among African communities. Those in conflict with one another tended to remain in conflict, despite the impending threat from the French, British, Germans, and other powers.” ("African Resistance to Colonial Rule", 2016) This information would imply that the resistance to European colonization in Africa did almost nothing to change the already strained relationships between communities in Africa, which were already having issues cooperating with each other . Despite the fact that the Europeans, Germans, and French were determined to take over, many communities did not stand together and fight off the invaders. However, some religious and community leaders did take a stand, but without a strong force behind them, they submitted to European rule and helped fight neighboring communities as allies to conquer fellow African communities. Additionally, the European imperial expansion continued because of the abundant resources that they intended to steal and use for their personal and country’s benefit and profit. ("African Resistance to Colonial Rule", 2016)
Although it is common to write about the history of conquering men who led fierce rebellions, women have been a part of the resistance to outside power, including Africa. For example, a beautiful African woman, Yaa Asantewaa, who was the Queen Mother of the region called Edwesco, which is part of the area that was known as the Asante Kingdom but is now called Ghana. ("Black History Heroes: Queen Mother Nana Yaa Asantewaa of West Africa's Ashanti Empire", 2016) She was born around 1830 and was a sister to Kelso Afrane Panin, who was the leader or chief of Edweso.According to information found at Blackhistoryheros.com, “In 1900, British colonial governor Frederick Hodgson called a meeting in the city of Kumasi of the Ashantehene local rulers. At the meeting, Hodgson stated that King Prempeh I would continue to suffer an exile from his native land and that the Ashanti people were to surrender to the British their historical, ancestral Golden Stool - a dynastic symbol of the Ashanti empire.” ("Black History Heroes: Queen Mother Nana Yaa Asantewaa of West Africa's Ashanti Empire", 2016).
The British invaded from the Gold Coast, led by Lord Hodgson, who wanted to steal the Golden Stool from them which was their symbolic independence throne, as well as he wanted to take over and tax the natives for their vast tribal lands. The population of natives was bullied by a group of thugs that were led by Captain C.H. Armitage to enforce the will of Lord Hodgson. The group of thugs went to each village and beat men, women, and children in an attempt to gain their submission and the items that Lord Hodgson wanted, especially the stool. ("Black History Heroes: Queen Mother Nana Yaa Asantewaa of West Africa's Ashanti Empire", 2016)
Finally, after the exile of the King, Nana Osei Agyeman Prempeh I, and about 55 chiefs and other related people, on March 28, 1900. The rest of the monarchy gathered as the British Captain commanded that they stool be given to him. However, Yaa told them all that they could not have the stool, nor would she pay them taxes any longer. Yaa told the men that she would exchange her loincloths with any male who was not going to fight against the oppressive Imperial rule. It was because of this intolerance for cruelty that Yaa declared war for Independence that day.
Yaa gathered about 4,000 soldiers who spent three months attacking the British fort in Kumasi. After the British had sustained substantial causalities, they sent for reinforcements from Nigeria. Unfortunately, on March 3, 1901, Yaa was arrested, and the Queen Mother was removed into exile where she lived to be 90 years old.
Queen Yaa was not the only fearless female leader in Africa. For example, in the 17th century, Queen Nzinga Mbande of Luanda, was known for being ruthless, fearless, and clever when she bravely led the fight for freedom against the Portuguese. According to information found on the Black Past website, “The Portuguese established a fort and settlement at Luanda in 1617, encroaching on Mbundu land. In 1622 they invited Ngola (King) Mbande to attend a peace conference there to end the hostilities with the Mbundu. Mbande sent his sister Nzinga to represent him in a meeting with Portuguese Governor Joao Corria de Sousa. Nzinga was aware of her diplomatically awkward position.” ("Queen Nzinga (1583-1663) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed", 2016) It was her responsibility to thwart the foreigners from attempting to take over their kingdoms. Her Central African coastline was in danger of complete invasion by Portugal, who wanted to take African slaves and gain control of trade. However, because Nzinga was a cunning and clever leader, her way of battling without fighting was to transform, change, and adapt the circumstances to allow the Portuguese to conduct trade on equal grounds with local merchants. ("Queen Nzinga (1583-1663) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed", 2016)
The governor of Luanda started to aggressively campaign against Queen Nzinga’s Kingdom of Ndongo. During this invasion, in 1617, King Mbandi, the Queen’s brother, escaped out of the area and as a result, thousands of native Ndongo citizens were captured and imprisoned. In response, the king asked his sister, Nzinga to negotiate the details of a peace treaty in 1621. Although the treaty talks were successful, Portugal did not honor the agreement. King Ngola took his life and the throne passed to his sister, Nzinga. ("Queen Nzinga (1583-1663) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed", 2016)
With Nzinga in power, the renegotiations with Portuguese needed to occur. She was aware that for peace to occur, she needed to become an ally to Portugal. She allowed herself to be baptized and took the colonial governor as her godfather. This was a ritual that allied the two forces against any enemy, including neighboring African groups. This action ended the slave acquisition in the kingdom. ("Queen Nzinga (1583-1663) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed", 2016)
However, the newly formed alliance was not long-lasting. Portugal could not keep the agreement before betraying Ndongo. Nzinga fled when war broke out, and she took over a neighboring kingdom, Matamba. As part of her occupation, she captured the Queen Mongo Matamba and made the army do her bidding. As a result of the seizure, she joined both of her kingdoms into one.
As part of her power, Nzinga allowed the sanctuary to African soldiers trained by the Portuguese and runaway slaves. She covered the Ndongo people to rebel against the Portuguese and opened communication with the Dutch to join with her in battling the Portuguese. She wanted to ally with them because they were honest and just, the opposite of the Portuguese, who were unfair and had lied to her just to gain power and control over her land.
Unfortunately, it was not enough to join forces with the Dutch, and the Portuguese remained in her kingdom. However, that was not going to extinguish Nzinga’s thirst for her kingdom. She focused on the development of troops and strengthening her army in Matamba. By the time she died, in 1661. The Queen had accomplished the strength of her kingdom in Matamba and was as powerful as the Portuguese. She was well-respected as a shrewd and focused Queen. Her kingdom was able to hold strong for years after her death at the age of 81.
In addition to the long-living queens that have led their people into rebellion against European or any other invasion from outside forces, some women have led revolts in their country, against the oppression of many kinds. For example, Alice (Auma) Lakwena of Northern Uganda, who was born in 1956 and died in 2007. She was an influential spiritual priestess and rebel leader who founded a group called the Holy Spirit Mobile Forces. Her fight was against President Yoweri Museveni of Uganda. ("Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirit movement - Magazine", 2016)
She claimed to be channeling a great warrior and took the name Lakwena because of this channeled force. She claimed that she would make her weak forces powerful in battle. According to the East African online magazine, “Thus if they smeared “miracle” shea butter oil on their bodies, the bullets of Museveni’s soldiers would not kill them. Many believed it.” ("Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirit movement - Magazine", 2016) However, after they were defeated by the troops that Museveni sent, she fled to Kenya along with many of her followers. Her followers believed that magic potions could protect them. However, that was not the case when they were defeated. Later, the group collected again to form a new group called the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) that was led by Lakwena’s cousin, Joseph Kony, whose leadership is opposite of Lakwena and continues to lead based on his idea of biblical truths.
Before the spiritual medium tried to lead her followers into battle, there was Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana, who was born around 1862 and died in 1898. She was also a spiritual leader and resisted white rule in the late 19th century. She was known for being a powerful Shona woman in Zimbabwe and believed to have been a channel. ("Nehanda", 2016)
Because her ability to lead was already well known, when the British settlers first invaded in 1890 to steal all the gold, land, and cattle that was owned by the Shona people and other indigenous peoples of Zimbabwe, it was easy for her to lead people into rebellion. The rebellion was spurred not only by the seizure of native lands but also by the forced labor and mistreatment of the natives at the hands of the British. ("Nehanda", 2016)
It is important to understand the significance of religion in the social structure of Africa as it held a critical role in the decisions that leaders made, concerning the rule of the people. At first, there were victories for both the Shona and the Ndebeke people on the battlefield, however, eventually they ran out of supplied and were defeated. Nehanda allowed herself to be captured to save her people from being destroyed. She was tried in court in 1898 and was found guilty of the murder of a cruel European commissioner. She was executed a month later, by hanging. According to the Black History Pages, “The indomitable Mbuya Nehanda, revolutionary prophet and leader of the First Chimurenga in 1896, has now been rightfully buried in Zimbabwe's Heroes' Acre.” ("Nehanda", 2016) Nehanda refused to convert to Christianity before her death and instead told the British that she would be reincarnated and help her people overcome the British tyranny. She became an inspiration to thousands who continued to fight for freedom in Zimbabwe. ("Nehanda", 2016)
Although popular history tells us to say this man achieved greatness because he conquered that country, women have been powerful leaders too. Women led rebellions to save their country from invaders. While some women preferred to gather troops, others became allies with the invaders, while religious or spiritual leaders were more apt to call on the spiritual realm for help. Some of the women were more successful than others, but the same story can be told for male leaders as well.
It would seem that any time the British were attempting to conquer an indigenous people to take their lands and resources as their own, they would apply taxes to the African natives to pay Europe for more terror. This tactic seems like the opposite of what the people of Africa were accustomed to and outside the understanding of the people. All of the women leaders that were in this essay saw the power of the British and other outside forces, and they decided the best thing they could do was to lead their people in rebellion against the outsiders.
Unfortunately, in an attempt to save their people, many others had to die in battles. None of them won and in the end, the Europeans moved in and took away the lifestyle, cultures, and lives of the native peoples of Africa, as they have so many other corners of the world. In an attempt to keep their native lands, most Africans have succumbed to an impoverished life as the riches of the land continue to fill the pockets of the invaders. In some areas of Africa, indigenous people are still allowed to live within their native lands and still maintain their cultural heritage. Thankfully, women like Nzinga of Ndongo from the Kingdom of Matamba, Alice Auma of Uganda, and Shona spiritual leader Nehanda Nyakasikana of Zimbabwe, have held significant positions in leadership with many rebellions against colonization and other foreign forces in Africa.
In conclusion, there are still rebellions that must rise against invading powers, and there are still groups that are crushed by those invading powers. As long as a powerful country wants the resources of another country, there will be some power struggle to gain control over the resources. However, in the modern world, the resource that is most fought over is oil and natural gas, instead of gold and cattle ranges as they once were.
Women in power have the opportunity to change the way the world works and perhaps the future of the planet, not just for control over the land and resources, but for the freedom of people and the rich cultures that might be preserved. Women have changed history and continue to do so. Women in Africa have proven to be valuable leaders that are worthy of more than just a passing mention in some history book; they need to be celebrated alongside the men.
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