Introduction – The Media:
The mainstream media had been used as a tool for propaganda for centuries, the ruler and governments over a period of time, have been using the media in different forms to primarily communicate the messages, with the intention to influence and control the masses.
In an era of technological advancement, a digitized world has taken shape, the influence of media in different shapes and forms has increased significantly, and the advent and phenomenal success of the social media channels, the influence of public behaviour has become more controlled since, swaying public opinion is being utilized by people in control in all aspects be it business or government.
Media has been described as a great keyboard on which the government can play, by one of the most infamous propaganda personality, Joseph Goebbels, the German Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda from 1933 to1945 (MacMillan. 2014).
The tools of media that has been used over the years by governments to spread the message, besides TV, Films, Radio, Press, also includes, computers, fax machines, posters, meetings, door-to-door canvassing, handbills, buttons, billboards, speeches, flags, street names, monuments, coins, stamps, books, plays, comic strips, poetry, music, sporting events, cultural events, company reports, libraries, and awards and prizes, as aptly mentioned in Manzaria & Bruck (2014), study on Media's Use of Propaganda to Persuade People's Attitude, Beliefs and Behaviors.
The media policies in China has been a subject of great debate both locally and globally, in view of the stringent measures taken by the Chinese authorities over the ears with controlled media and in this regard the era of Mao Zedong that initiated from 1949 and lasted till 1976, will be studied in detail with regards to the key defining characteristics of the media policy.
A long march ‘white terror’ was launched by the then nationalist government that drove all the communist to the Shaanxi Province in 1927, that on the contrary what the nationalist government were expecting to curtail the uprising, helped Mao’s cause in being able to recruit and most importantly creating a communist home base (Stauffacher, 2015).
The media were the primary weapon that was utilised by Mao to develop the movement, and the posters were used to propagate misinformation, that promoted Mao as a leader of the masses and their saviour (Chinese Posters, 2014).
The aforementioned incidents were the fabric, on which the political and ideological control was held for twenty seven years in the Mao era on the media, in Mao’s era media and television were not seen from a technological viewpoint rather it was seen as a tool that encompassed Maoist characteristics that in essence favoured the drastic political and ideological aims and objectives.
Censorship:
The Mao led revolution was named the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and the primary aim was to control the people by using propaganda and censorship in an effective manner, the aim was to make the people think that everything was perfect in relation to the running of the communist government (Censorship, 2016).
The communist and the nationalist party worked together for the greater good of China, when they fought the Japanese in the Second World War, however, soon after the war finished, Mao led coup against the Nationalist party and a civil war erupted and thus, the Maoist reign began in 1949 (Stauffacher, 2015).
The censorship policy an its parameters can be gauged from the introduction of the ‘four olds’ policy in 1966, the policies main premise was to seek out people who utilized the Nationalist party doctrine in relation to the ideas, habits, culture and customs (Stauffacher, 2015).
The aforementioned censorship had a direct impact on the media, starting with writers, that as illustrated by Stauffacher (2015), the work was taken by the Mao authorities if it does not match the doctrine of the communist party, the main threat that Mao had from the writings was the influence that the writing may have had on public opinion.
One of the key influences that led Mao to implement censorship on the media policy was the belief that the Western world is colluding against the country, and thus, to prevent any influence from the Western world, who according to Mao, do not comprehend the struggles of the daily life of Chinese people and the country in general (Censorship, 2016).
The premise to seal China from the world was a gradual process, with the country’s poor economy in relation to the Westerners and Japanese prosperous economies, and the premise of the communist party to seal the country from the world was rooted on certain incidents that intruded the Chinese way of life immensely.
The intrusion of the Western Imperialism in the mid nineteenth century for the Treaty Port Systems and the Opium Wars, the Japanese intrusion in relation to taking over the Shandong in 1914, the invasion of Eastern China in 1937 and the annexation of Manchuria, are some of the most important events, that shaped the defining characteristic of China’s media policy in the Maoist Era (McMillin, 2007).
Central Propaganda Department:
The Advent of Television in China as media component, initiated in 1958 with Beijing Television, ironically, it was renamed as China Central Television or CCTV in 1976 and was controlled by the Central Propaganda Department (McMillin, 2007).
Television’s launch in China in 1958 and 1959 is known as the ‘Great Leap Forward’, this campaign was to mobilize the people, and also provides an insight into the thinking of the Communist Party and Mao in relation to their belief to make China a powerful socialist nation (Miller, 2003).
The TV station had one channel and went on air twice a week, with a time frame of 2-3 hours, and the main crux of the programming showcased the programming mechanics of the future under the communist rule.
The initial TV program consisted of news, documentaries, and entertainment and education materials and only the military was spared since it was under Mao’s control, the era between 1966 and 1976 was the lowest point in the Maoist era, since it not only negated any small leaps in the media that was achieved previously, the inter party struggles led China into a great economic depression (Miller, 2003).
After Mao’s Communist party ascension the Central Propaganda Department was divided into bureaus and a range of sub-section, namely, the Propaganda Bureau, the Theoretical Education Bureau, the, the Culture and Art Bureau, the Science Bureau, the Newspaper and Broadcasting Bureau (Brady, 2010).
The aforementioned, showcases the fact that the planning by Mao and the party was planned in detail to take control of all the aspects of life in China post 1949, and the set up of so many bureaus led to an extensive operational team being set up to lead the operations as per the communist party set of guidelines.
After the expansion the main objective of the Central Propaganda Department was setting up a system of cadres within the cultural and education systems, and was primarily positioned to inform in elation to any opinionated trend from a local perspective (Brady, 2010).
It is imperative to note that the Central Propaganda Department’s role was the key in helping Mao to institute and most importantly implement the key defining characteristics of media policy as per the requirement.
The Central Propaganda Department’s issued directives with regards to the content that could be published, all the content was basically copy written by the department to make sure it is in tune with the guidelines, and was referred to as tifa, and was used to describe events and people, besides, providing guidance for showcasing the struggle from an ideological perspective to the masses as per the communist doctrine (Brady, 2010).
The ideology of Mao, and to expand the Communist beliefs and philosophy, required the department to silence any kinds of rumours that was referred to as, yaoyan, and that meant limiting all kinds of different information source (Brady, 2010).
The extent of the severity of the Media policy and how it dictated and impacted people’s life for twenty seven years in China, can be gauged from the fact that, the memorabilia collection was selected and showcased only, if it was deemed appropriate for public viewing.
Newspapers were used in a very effective manner to chart out the study sessions in relation to the implementation of the theoretical education work, besides, new textbooks were also created that create a singular viewpoint in relation to thinking patterns.
The topics of the textbooks ranged from, the revolutionary history of China, Marxist-Leninism and the Chinese history, also, content was developed to initiate study sessions in offices and factories (Brady, 2010).
The aforementioned sessions were held every day for 2 hours and were based on a journal Xuexi study, the key aspect of the whole operations was the focus on people thinking and therefore, the Central Propaganda Department, in lieu with the local departments across China, appointed leading cadres to get firsthand knowledge of public opinion and the propaganda workers were called the bridge, i.e. qiaoloang (Brady, 2010).
Role of Mao Zedong:
Mao Zedong established a legacy that still reverberates in the Chinese culture and operational mechanics, he divided opinions, but there is no denying the fact that he was one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th century, as reported and quoted on BBC on the eve of Mao Zedong’s 120th birth anniversary in 2013, Mao's mistakes and achievements were defended by, The nationalist Beijing newspaper Global Times by stating that every revolution had a vicious side to it and it was as quoted ‘impossible to judge Mao's Communist revolution, and its excesses, from a "humanitarian perspective" (BBC, 2013).
Mao Zedong had a direct impact in orchestrating the media policy, and the propaganda, by writing numerous articles that provided the road map to conceptualize and most importantly using the thought conducting the propaganda in an effective manner (Brady, 2010).
The initial years of the saw Mao Zedong, constantly overriding the authority of the then Central Propaganda Department Director, Lu Dingyi. The impact of how Mao led propaganda was disseminated to all over China, can be gauged from the following example.
The supreme instruction was the term used for Mao’s and Party’s announcements, and it was passed in no time, by utilizing the radio, that was the most popular media channel during those times, and then later on printed in newspapers (Miller, 2003).
The Cultural Revolution:
The cycle of lies and propaganda, eventually, create a bigger divide within the CCP and therefore, in 1966, Mao along with his most trusted associates, took total control over the propaganda system and it was referred to as the ‘Cultural Revolution’, lasting till 1976, the cultural revolutions main premise has been to extend the propaganda and thought work by radicalizing it even more (Brady, 2010).
It is poignant that the revolution that happened was panned by the Chinese and Western scholars as mere an internal power struggle within the party leadership in CCP some claimed it to be a genuine social movement and an extreme impression of Mao’s movement.
The Cultural Revolution in essence, redefined the media policy characteristics, that was previously set up and besides the military propaganda system that was already under the control of Mao, all other bureaus consisting of the media, publishing, social science research, culture, art and entertainment, mass organizations, sports were influenced by the revolutionary changes ( Brady 2010).
Post 1976 Era:
In spite of living in a technologically advanced age and the domination of the digital and social media, the Chinese media and the way of life is still heavily affected by the communist operational doctrine.
The most recent event in which a top journalist Yu Shaolei, of Southern Metropolis Daily, posted a resignation note using the digital channels, stating that he cannot follow the Communist Party line and as quoted his statement regarding the knees getting old of so many years of kneeling bears testimony to the Maoist led revolution being a part of this Chinese generational principle set by the ruling Communist elite (BBC China, 2016).
The Maoist era’s defining characteristic of demanding absolute loyalty from the media and the massed was reincarnated recently, with the President Xi Jinping, high profile visits to Chinese media outlets.
The social and digital media bans and control, showcase the Country in the same light as it was operating under the Maoist rule, the recent censorship of an article that elaborated and discussed the issue of free speech, irked many prominent journalists in China.
In a highly unusual and unprecedented step, by Hu Shuli, a leading journalist in China, challenged the government in an article with an image that reverberated globally due to its visual appeal marking the communist control, showcasing the image showcased a gag with masking tape on the mouth (Phillips, 2016).
The current media are monitored very closely, and the print media are more restricted as illustrated by some recent examples above, however, in this age of globalization and commercialism, where China has reigned supreme in terms of providing all kinds of services, the local media and provincial networks are to some extent self-sufficient in view of the fact that they generate their own revenues (McMillan, 2007).
On a concluding note, the defining characteristics of the Mao era are still creating their presence felt in the Chinese and social media due to its features of engaging and instant interactivity has provided a new challenge to the current Communist government.
Some examples of the current censorship policies that has affected China last year includes the banning of the third party apps by China’s State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT), in an attempt to control and also prop up the declining cable industry of China (Custer, 2015).
The other instances mentioned in Custer article, includes, the vetting of all music by the Ministry of Culture, the integration of police in the internet company offices, the censorship of Uber that created controversy since no other search term was affected (Custer, 2015).
Tencent, Youku, and Baidu’s iQiyi, the online streaming companies were banned for objectionable content, Under the dome, a big viral hit last year showcasing the serious environmental issues was banned, ironically the documentary was produced under the auspices of the government, but once it started to garner eyeballs the government got nervous and removed it from major streaming platforms (Custer, 2015).
The banning of online user names, new posting rules, and pulling US shows from the web are some of the state controlled mechanics, however, the social media has made all the difference in relation to opening up the inadequacies of the communist rule to a global audience and it is high time, a set of guidelines that placates both the government and the masses is introduced, or the situation in China will explode.
This phenomenon of extreme media censorship as illustrated by the above examples has carried over and continued into today’s China and the notion of the government to restrict globalization, but do modernize, is exactly in lieu with the legacy of Mao Zedong.
References:
Brady, A-M. (2010). From Thought Reform to Economic Reform: Comparing Propoganda and Thought Work in Different Eras. Marketing Dictatorship: Propaganda and Thought Work in Contemporary China. Pg. 36-38. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
BBC News (2013). China media: Mao Zedong's legacy. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-25490140
BBC China (2016). China editor resigns over media censorship. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-35915056
Chinese Posters (2014). The Mao Cult. Retrieved from http://chineseposters.net/themes/mao-cult.php
Censorship (2016). China: The Media, the Internet, and the Intricacies of Censorship. Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/mcintricaciesofcensorship/china-s-media-policy
Custer, C. (2015). 10 big examples of online censorship in China this year. Tech in Asia. Retrieved from https://www.techinasia.com/top-10-censorship-china-2015
MacMillan, S. (2014). The Mainstream Media has Always Been a Propaganda Tool of the Establishment. The Analyst Report. Retrieved from http://www.theanalystreport.net/2014/07/09/the-mainstream-media-has-always-been-a-propaganda-tool-of-the-establishment/
Manzaria, J. & Bruck, J. (2014). Media's Use of Propaganda to Persuade People's Attitude, Beliefs and Behaviors. Retrieved from https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/war_peace/media/hpropaganda.html
McMillin, D. C. (2007). Reviving the Pure Nation: Media as Postcolonial International Media Studies. Pg. 83-84. Blackwell Publishing.
Miller, T. (2003). Broadcasting and politics: Chinese TV under the Mao Era. Television: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies, Volume 1. Pg. 354. Routledge.
Philips, T. (2016). Chinese magazine challenges government over censorship. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/08/chinese-magazine-challenges-government-censorship-organ
Stauffacher, M. (2015). Media Censorship in China. Washington State University. Retrieved from https://history105.libraries.wsu.edu/spring2015/2015/01/18/media-censorship-in-china/
