Mesopotamia is one of the most important nexus of the entire world civilization and ancient urban culture. Sumer were the pioneers towards the establishment of this culture, with their achievement subsequently absorbed and developed by the Babylonians and Assyrians (Schneider, 2011). The origins of the Mesopotamian culture can be traced back to the 4th millennium B.C., which witnessed the emergence of the first cities. Throughout the long period of its existence, the Mesopotamian culture was characterized by inner unity, the succession of traditions, and the inseparable connection of its organic elements.
The initial stage of the foundation of the Mesopotamian culture were marked by the invention writing that would later develop into cuneiform. In turn, cuneiform was one of the core elements that united all other aspects and allowed denizens to preserve their traditions. With that, the religious aspects of the Mesopotamian lifestyle predetermined the subsequent evolution of paganism and monotheism. It was the Mesopotamian religion that proved crucial for the development of other nations and races after the decline of this civilization. Indeed, when cuneiform and religion was completely forgotten, it entailed the collapse of the whole Mesopotamian culture. However, the most pivotal elements of its religious values were perceived by Persians, Arameans, Greeks, and people of other nations, were eventually adopted to the treasury of modern world culture. It is important, therefore, to delve into the history of the Mesopotamian religion and analyze its influence of the values and beliefs of its adherents.
In the ideological and cultural life of Mesopotamia, religions was undoubtedly playing the major role. As far as at the turn of 4-3 centuries B.C., Sumer witnessed the emergence of a circumstantially developed theological system that would later be borrowed and complemented by the Babylonians (Nemet-Nejat 175-196). Every city of Sumer worshipped its own patron god. Besides, there were also gods that were revered throughout all Sumer, though each of these gods had its own places of worship, usually situated in the place of the cult's emergence. These deities were Any, the god of heaven, Enlil, the god of earth, and Enki, the god of water (Schneider, 2011). Hence, various natural laws and forces were ascribed to different deities, and were often associated with cosmic bodies.
Furthermore, every Sumer god was endowed with special functions. Enlil, whose centre was the holy city of Nippur, was the god of destiny, the creator of cities, and also the inventor of the hoe and plow. Such deities as Utu, the god of the sun, Nanna, the god of the moon who was considered Enlil's son, and Inanna, the goddess of love and fertility, enjoyed great popularity among Mesopotamian inhabitants. Nergal, the god of death and diseases, was associated with the planet of Mars, Marduk, the supreme Babylonian god was connected with Jupiter, Nabu, Marduk's son, was considered the god of wisdom, writing and counting, and was associated with Mercury.
Initially, Marduk was one of the minor deities, but his role began to intensify with the elevation of Babylon, the city that was considered to be patronized by him. According to the Babylonian legend regarding the creation of the world, there initially existed only personified by Tiamat (Kuiper 163-166). In turn, this goddess gave rise to gods that, however, behaved badly and began to constantly disturb their mother. Thus, Tiamat decided to destroy every single god, but brave Marduk ventured to have a battle with the goddess, having previously ensured that in case of his victory the other gods would obey him. Subsequently, Marduk managed to defeat Tiamat and kill her (Kuiper 163-166). From the body of the goddess, he created heaven filled with stars, earth, herbs, animals and fishes. After that, Marduk created a human by mixing loam with the blood of Tiamat's servant. This myth was further borrowed by the Babylonians from Sumer with small deviations. Of course, in the corresponding Sumer legend, Marduk, the god of Babylon, was not mentioned at all, with Enlil represented as the conquering hero.
Apart from deities, the denizens of Mesopotamia also revered various demons of good and attempted to please evil demons that were considered the causes of different diseases and death. Mesopotamian people tried to save their lives through the use of spells and amulets. With that, all those demons were portrayed as half-people and half-animals. Inhabitants especially favored the so-called lamassu that were imagined by people as flying bulls with human heads (Bertman 120-121). Seeking refuge in these depicted images of superior creatures, denizens placed lamassu at the entrances to the palaces of Assyrian kings to protect them.
Moreover, religion also shaped the beliefs of Mesopotamian denizens regarding afterworld. According to their beliefs, that place was the kingdom of shadows, where the death always suffered from hunger and thirst, and were forced to eat clay and dust, whereupon the children of the deceased were obliged to make sacrifices to them. At the same time, religion always left the possibility to turn the events for the better, provided a person behaved in a proper way. The ziggurat, the typical Mesopotamian temple tower, represented the place where the inhabitants of heaven stayed (Bertman 127-197). It symbolized the human aspiration to establishing connection between the earth and the sky. Generally, the denizens of Mesopotamia relied little upon gods' goodwill. Instead, religion urged them to please gods by making more and more complicated rituals and sacrifices.
Indeed, these traditions found among various religious beliefs of Mesopotamia depict the remnants of archaic conceptions. Thus, the Mesopotamian religion draws vivid parallels with the leftovers of totemism. With that, many deities were revered in the images of animals, like dogs, bulls, birds and fishes. In most cases, however, the gods of Mesopotamia resembled much of human appearance, and relatively rarely acquired traits of animals, such as thorns or claws. It should be also noted that ancient Mesopotamian rulers had such names as Lamb, Scorpion etc., that reflected Sumer memories regarding totemic ancestors.
The religion of Mesopotamia also found its reflection in change of matriarchy by patriarchy. Apparently, in ancient time, feminine deities played a dominant role. It is no merely coincidence, therefore, that the primeval water element was perceived through the image of Tiamat. Subsequently, when religious conceptions were included by priests into a system and began to represent a unified pantheon, the majority of gods appeared masculine, with goddesses playing a minor role, even though they were the full-fledged members of the heavenly council. Moreover, the feminine deities were served by the priests of the same gender, and these were the so-called holy maidens - the anchorites who devoted themselves to their deities, and holy harlots who returned the income from prostitution to their temples. In point of fact, these traditions marked a vividly negative attitude towards women in Mesopotamian society.
What is more, religion also had an influence and governmental power and legislation. Since, Sumer society and the subsequent Mesopotamian communities were considered as the self-governed society of gods, authority could not by characterized by the dominance of absolutism. The decisions of rulers had be approved by collective institutions, the councils of elders and warriors. Furthermore, a mortal ruler appeared the servant of gods, and thus was responsible for the proper implementation of their laws. Indeed, a mortal governor was rather a trusted person than an autocrat. He was controlled by an impersonal law established by gods, and this law limited the power of the ruler no less than that of the most humble citizen.
The evidence regarding the efficiency of the Mesopotamian laws are multiple and refer back to different eras. Since a ruler was the servant of both gods and the law, he was obliged to follow the code of laws that included conventional regulations and different amendments. The large law books usually referred to as codes manifested this ancient form of governmental control that was based mostly on religious foundations and which had emerged as a system by the beginning of the 3rd millennium B.C. Some of the remained codes include the laws of Ur-Nammu, the founder of the 3rd dynasty, the Sumer laws and the laws of Eshnunna, each of them preceding the famous laws of Hammurabi (Nemet-Nejat 26-28).
In the final analysis, here comes the conclusion that the religion of Mesopotamia was the core element on which the entire civilization was based. In aggregate, this entire religious system, along with the worldview of the Mesopotamian people, outlived this civilization and remained practically the same as the initial Sumer values in many centuries ahead (Nemet-Nejat 175-196). None of the Mesopotamian deities represented an exclusive source of power, and none had its superior authority. The full authority belonged to the pantheon of gods, the power of which, according to Sumer beliefs, was manifested and accumulated in the ruler. At the same time, people knew that nothing was eternal and nothing could be taken for granted. In the eyes of the Mesopotamian people, the instability of space caused intrigues among gods, and therefore bode no good future for them. Nonetheless, denizens were peculiar for their incessant worship and adherence to their religion, since it was the primary spiritual means of their self-protection. On the whole, the influence of the Mesopotamian religion is a great exemplar of people's faithfulness and aspiration to ideal concepts and values, as well as the desire to portray a higher entity that would always patronize them. In this connection, however, the religion of Mesopotamia appears the same as any other religion found throughout the world.
Works Cited
Bertman, Stephen. Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. 120-121, 127-197. Print.
Kuiper, Kathleen. Mesopotamia: The World's Earliest Civilization. New York, NY: Britannica Educational Pub. in Association with Rosen Education Services, 2010. 163- 166. Print.
Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1998. 26-28, 175-196. Print.
Schneider, Tammi J. An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Pub., 2011. Print.
