SECTION A
The period after 323 BC to 30 BC, marked by the death of Alexander the Great and ending with Cleopatra’s death, did subsequently see the annexation of Egypt into the Roman Empire. It however, largely represent a time of considerable assimilations of Greek cultural traditions assimilated into the Empire. Hellenism grew strong on the Mediterranean shore, which saw the emergence continuous Greek civilizations, whose influence spread across the East Jordan River, Palestine, Panias and other regions where Judaism had already taken root (Hadaf 27). The contact between Semites and Greeks does however go as far back as the Mycenaean times, but only intensified after the fall of Cleopatra especially in Alexandria. Jewish Hellenization in Diaspora as well as in Palestine largely comprised of the adoption of Aramaic and Hebrew in place of Greek, but on the contrary, Greek names, educational institutions, philosophy, literature, syncretism and religious deviation, which in turn reflected in multiple aspects of religious, personal and political life (King and Stager 193).
The effect of Hellenism on Jewish civilization was largely positive, because of the religious, social and political opposition, which had the effect of minimizing the tendencies towards idolatry, Gnosticism, Platonism as well as the political/religious influences (Wylen 81). As a result of these, the Hellenistic influences on Judaism, which lasted were actually superficial and decorative in nature as against radical. They served to influence the evolution of Jewish and other cultures as against forming a considerable part of it. While multiple civilizations, other than Jewish were also exposed to Hellenism, they did not turn out in the same manner as the Jewish cultures. The resistance, especially driven by small groups of people served an important role such as what came to comprise the Psalms and Songs of Solomon (Macc. 1:24–29). However, the positive aspects became absorbed into the Jewish cultural aspects, which only served to make it richer. This is not least because of aspects such as stoicism in the interpretation of laws. Hellenism was and remains an important part of the Jewish culture and civilization, evidenced in architecture, art etc, such as the colonnades and courts erected by Herod, several centuries since Cleopatra’s fall (Zeitlin 138).
Halakhah
Halakhah builds on the practices, observances, international relationships, national, social and personal aspects of Judaism into a quasi-legal, largely rabbinic literature, which guides multiple aspects of the Jewish people. It grew into a powerful tradition, whose usages came to be generically identified with the entire Jewish legal system. It grew to be a critical religious duty, going as far back as Moses’ law and it includes varied elements of different value. There are five different sources of Halakhah (Coogan 73). These include written law (commandments, revelations etc), traditions and practices passed down from one generation to the other (Lev 27:34). The laws that are passed down this way assumed Sinaitic force, founded on the belief that prophets and elders received revelations from God. Oral laws and other interpretations comprise of inherently written law, evidenced through scriptural interpretation (Zeitlin 86). Some Jewish traditions consider oral law as flowing directly from God’s revelation and thus extremely important. This however not an universal view. The Nahmanides considers oral laws forceful, if it is backed by Jewish traditions.
The logical deductions consider Halakhah as self-evident, which does not necessitate any spiritual basis in order to be authoritative. Another critical source of Halakhah comprises of sayings by sages, which places no obligation on the Jews, but serves as a guide to people in leading both their religious, personal etc lives. Lastly, social and religious customs serve to feel in the gaps left by other sources of Halakhah, especially making up for unclear rules and traditions (Gnuse 99). Effectively, Halakhah has served as a vehicle for the Jewish people and civilization to learn from their history, daily lives and experiences, by gathering them together into Halakhah that in turn shapes the present and future lives of the race and religion.
Like Hellenism, Halakhah remains to be a distinctive aspect of Judaism as a religion and civilization, shaping the belief in God and his word. Other than the relationship with God, it has also been instrumental in uniting the people who have a variety of temperaments, theological persuasions and origins. The attitudes of Jews with respect to Halakhah does even determine the difference between orthodoxy and reforming Judaism, not least because the very nature of Halakhah ensures that it evolves over time (King and Stager 191). The evolution gives it a major advantage as a guide to religious life. This advantage derives from the fact that the differences in the interpretation with the changing times allows for Halakhah to respond to the practical challenges facing the Jews in their daily lives, which renders Halakhah relevant. It preserves the aspect of common law, in which laws/customs are dynamic in order to reflect the changing times and needs of the Jewish people and civilization.
The Shemoneh Esreh
The “Judaism prayer” is among the most important prayers in Judaism, recited by practicing faithfuls. It is recited up three times in a single day, consisting of eighteen benedictions that are recited while standing up in order to show respect in God’s presence, with the language drawn from the durations prior to the Temple’s destruction in 70CE. There are varied versions of The Shemoneh Esreh, contained in multiple manuscripts (King and Stager 21). The prayer, also called tefillah translates to (i) prayer and (ii) an argument with God (Zeitlin 284). The Shemoneh Esreh has strict laws and customs to be adhered to by the followers, largely driven by the need to ensure complete concentration and sincerity in seeking God’s help. Halakhah requires that Amidar must be recited with intention, effectively demanding absolute respect and sincerity, which is reinforced even further by the prohibiting interruptions to the prayer, except in the case of personal or community emergencies (Dever 143). Silence and standing derive in part from the conduct of Hannah, when she called on God so she could conceive as well as in imitation of the angels’ behavior in God’s presence. Other practices include, bowing facing Jerusalem, taking three steps back and forward to draw themselves out of the worldly life etc (Zeitlin 177).
The Shemoneh Esreh represents a culmination of centuries of varied traditions and practices, which came together in multiple prayers. It builds on multiple religious facets and symbolisms, drawn from Halakhah, Hellenism and others. In addition, the prayer and the symbolisms associated with them change overtime, to reflect the changing needs and religious environments of the Jews (Zeitlin 173). It represents part of the most important religious practices, which also serves to perpetuate those very practices, beliefs etc to the future generations, while at once forging stronger relationships between God and humans as well as the relationships among men.
Israel
Israel refers to the nation of the Jewish people. While this definition has remained the same from the ancient times to the present, the meanings have changed from a purely religious symbolism to nearly political meaning. Israel describes the nation that descended directly from Jacob, who is named Israel after wrestling an angel in Jabbok. Israel’s legitimate descendants formed the nation of Israel. The story of Israel is rooted in the story of the Judaism’s cultural heroes from the Genesis through to 536 BCE – 70 CE and even later (Coogan 61). The stories include chronicles of Jacob, the Egyptian bondage, the promised land and the new nation that emerged from the people directly descended from Jacob. Israel has changed over millennia to the dispersion and intermarriages, which subsequently helped the transition into the modern-day ethnic groups as well as nation. In order to preserve the original nation of Israel, the lineages through the mother is still maintained as a qualification as a member of the nation of Israel as well as the modern Israeli citizenship (Hadaf 79).
Israel has with time also come to mean God’s chosen people and believers in the old testament. The nation of Israel comprises the original “nation”/Jacob’s descendents/twelve tribes of Israel to all people who believe in the Old Testament and the coming of the Messiah to save the righteous (Dever 18). Israel has a sense of inclusiveness, feeling of being a special race, which has in turn driven the dedication to their faith and religion. Israel is an important factor to Judaism as religion as well as to the Jewish people.
SECTION B
Was the Israelite Culture (before 586 BCE) Monotheistic?
Israeli culture prior to 586BC had been through phases of monotheism, polytheism and a mixture of the two (depending a multitude of factors). The characterization of the nature of the culture is dependent on how further one has to consider, as well as the scope of consideration. It is unclear as to when exactly monotheism took root in Israel, but it has been associated with the Exodus (around the second millennium). During the 13th century, the Israelites/Levantines came out of Egypt under Moses to freedom (1279 to 1212BC), following which they were led on the path of monotheism. Other historians and the Jewish traditions do however attribute the rise of monotheism to Abraham’s time in the second millennium, but besides Abraham, Jacob and Isaac, there is little evidence of monotheism at this time. Thus, the existence of a monotheist culture at the time of Israel remains without solid proof. This is especially since many biblical accounts that evidence this bear very close similarity to the 587 Babylonian Exile accounts. However, following the exodus and the creation of a covenant relationship with God on Mount Sinai ushered in a determined practice of monotheism, but the evidence of the lack of this culture is easy to see, when the Israelites resorted to idolatry, in their desperation after Moses faild to return in good time.
The transition to monotheism took a considerable number of centuries to be entrenched into the Israeli culture, largely due to the efforts of individual religious and political leaders, coupled by conquests etc by the external powers, which once more drove the Israelites towards polytheism (Lipschitz 39). During 1000 BC and 587BC, there is evidence of the existence of both monotheist and polytheist cultural practices in Israel. In 1 Kings 11:5-7 for instance, there is evidence that Solomon worshipped the Sidonian goddess (Astarte) as well as the Ammonite god (Milcom) other than Yahweh. Yet in Ps. 18.31, there is once more, biblical evidence of the existence of entrenched trends towards monotheism with e.g. “Who is god except Yahweh?”.
With the growth of power of the nation of Israel, characterized by both internal and external stability, monotheism became more entrenched (Wylen 164). These trends were strengthened with the emergence of the prophetic reformation between 700BC and 550BC, characterized by strong prophets and religious leaders who led the nation in faith to Yahweh (with minor failures). The crushing experience of the Israelites under the Babylonian bondage served to revive the nation’s determination and belief in Yahweh as well as monotheism (King and Stager 285). There is strong evidence that monotheism existed and had thrived prior to the fall of Israel and the bondage served to set their beliefs. Effectively, a culture of monotheism did indeed exist prior to 587BC, but this is only true for the period between 1200BC and 587BC. There is evidence of monotheism before, but not strong enough to characterize them as cultural.
Works Cited
Coogan, Michael. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Dever, Williams. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? Boston: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006.
Gnuse, Robert Karl. No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 1997.
Grabbe, Lester L. Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.). Boston: T&T Clark International, 2008.
Hadaf, Kollel Iyun. Insights to the Daf: Maseches Berachos. Jerusalem: Feldheim Publishers, 2006.
King, Philip J. and Lawrence E Stager. Life in Biblical Israel. Jerusalem: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001.
Leff, Zev. Shemoneh Esrei: The Depth and Beauty of Our Daily Prayer. Jerusalem: Targum Press, 2008.
Lipschitz, Oded. The fall and rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian rule. Telaviv: Eisenbrauns, 2005.
Wylen, Stephen. The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1996.
Zeitlin, Solomon. "The Tefillah, the Shemoneh Esreh: An Historical Study of the First Canonization of the Hebrew Liturgy." The Jewish Quarterly Review New Series, Vol. 54, No. 3 (1964): 280-301.
