Introduction
The morning of August 6, 1945 an American B-29 bomber «Enola Gay» (crew commander - Colonel Paul Tibbets) dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima atomic bomb («Little Boy»). Three days later, the atomic bomb («Fat Man") was dropped on Nagasaki.
Estimates of human losses from attacks are hampered by three factors: the low reliability of the statements in this difficult time for Japan, a large number of victims who died months or years later after bombing, and periodic desire to exaggerate or minimize the loss depending on Japan’s political intentions. It is estimated that 140,000 people died in Hiroshima by the explosion and its consequences. The estimate for Nagasaki is 74,000 people under the same conditions. In both cities, the overwhelming majority of the victims were civilians.
The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender, as well as its possible justification is often subjected to revision. Today, in the United States dominates view that the bombing helped to end the war for months earlier than it would be without them, thus saving a lot of lives that have been lost on both sides if there was a planned American invasion to Japan. On the opposite side it is believed that the bombing was not necessary, since the Japanese civilian leaders secretly sought to put an end to the hostility. The main purpose of the essay is to show the development of the bomb, the effects of the bomb, and reasons for dropping it.
The development of the bomb and Allies’ ultimatum
The United States, supported by Britain and Canada, designed and built the first atomic bomb in the framework of the so-called Manhattan Project. The project was launched at the initiative of scientists - refugees from Europe (including - Albert Einstein) and American scientists who feared that Germany is also conducting a large-scale campaign to develop a bomb (as it turned out later, the program was far less ambitious than the U.S. and not moved so quickly). The project was a secret. Presumably, it began in 1942, when it became known that Nazi Germany is working on the development of atomic weapons. Many prominent scientists who emigrated in 1933 from Germany (Frisch, Bethe, Szilard, Fuchs, Teller, Bloch and others), as well as Niels Bohr, brought from German-occupied Denmark, were connected to the project.
Preparation of plutonium-239 for the first test of a nuclear bomb "Trinity" on the Manhattan project is not directly related to difficulties in obtaining uranium-235, as in the case of plutonium-239, a special nuclear reactor and uranium-238 are used.
The first atomic bomb was produced in the state of New Mexico July 16, 1945. After the detonation of the first U.S. atomic bomb in New Mexico, Groves replied to Oppenheimer's words: "The war is over." He said, "Yes, but after we drop another two bombs on Japan. Manhattan project at its peak, gave work to more than 130,000 people in more than thirty institutions throughout the U.S., and cost about $ 2 billion, making it one of the largest and most expensive research programs of all time. After “Trinity” test, the next two bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. At the moment it is the only combat use of nuclear weapons.
The strategy against Japan of the Allies during the World War II was strategic bombing of the most important infrastructural components. The effect of this tactics was quite controversial, as it caused severe civil losses. The plane bombing of Dresden claimed more than 30,000 lives. The same tactics in Tokyo took about 100,000 lives. The air bombing campaign destroyed more than 60 Japanese cities during the course of war.
The U.S. lost almost 400,000 men during the course of war and half of the men killed were in Japan campaign. The battle of Okinawa caused great human losses from both sides. Japan lost about 100,000 civilians and 100,000 – 125,000 soldiers during the battle. The U.S. losses were about 70,000 soldiers. The continuation of war was expected to bring more victims in the American army. This was one of the reasons why Truman decided to use nuclear weapons, as he thought that Japanese army will not give up that easily and will prolong the war at any price.
U.S. President Harry Truman, who didn’t know about the Manhattan project before the death of Franklin Roosevelt, decided to use atomic bombs against Japan. He expressed his intention to finish the war rapidly through such devastation, coupled with the threat of further usage of nuclear bomb that would be sufficient for the Japanese surrender. On July 26th Truman and other Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which describes the terms of the surrender of Japan
It stated that Germany was an example of pointless resistance to Allied forces. Japan should surrender in order not to repeat Germany’s fate. However the weapons at Allies’ disposal became even more powerful and will cause much more damage to resisting Japanese. The Potsdam Declaration provided Japan with very harsh conditions of surrender and promised ultimate destruction in case of disobedience. The atomic bomb was still a well-guarded secret and was not mentioned in the declaration.
The next day, Japanese newspapers reported that the declaration, the text of which was broadcasted on radio and was scattered in the leaflets from planes, was rejected. The Japanese government indicated no wish to accept the ultimatum. On July 28th, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantaro said at a news conference that the Potsdam Declaration - no more than the old arguments of the Cairo Declaration in a new wrapper and demanded the government to ignore it.
Emperor Hirohito, who had been waiting Soviet answer to the Japanese diplomatic moves, did not change the government's decision. On July 31st in the conversation with Kido, he made it clear that the imperial power must be protected at all costs.
Selection of targets
The Committee on the target selection of the Los Alamos recommended as potential targets Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama, and the arsenal in Kokure. Committee rejected the idea of using these weapons against purely military targets, as there was a chance to miss the small target, not surrounded by a vast urban area. A psychological effect on the people of Japan was important to the members of the committee. The Committee also agreed that the first use of weapons must be significant enough for its international recognition. The Committee felt that in Kyoto (Japan intellectual center) population was better able to appreciate the value of all weapons. Hiroshima was chosen because of its large size and the fact that it was an important military camp and was surrounded by hills, which have a focusing effect.
U.S. Defense Secretary Henry Stimson deleted Kyoto from the list because of its cultural significance, despite the objections of General Leslie Groves, head of Manhattan project. According to Professor Edwin O. Reischauer, Stimson "knew and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there decades earlier." On July 25th General Carl Spaatz was ordered to bomb one of the following targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata and Nagasaki after August 3rd as soon as the weather allows, and in the future - the next town, as the bomb should be done by this time.
The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The primary reason of choosing Hiroshima as a target was its military significance. Japan troops were located near Hiroshima, and Marshal Sunroku Hata, who headed the defense of Southern Japan, was also there. Moreover Hiroshima was a big industrial city which supplied Japanese troops. Hiroshima was one of the few cities left almost untouched by firebombs. This gave Americans a chance to see the real effect of the nuclear weapon.
The maximum population of Hiroshima during the course of war was approximately 380 thousand people. However prior to the attack, the population decreased to 255 thousand men due to the massive evacuation from the city.
The first bomb was dropped on August 6th, 1945 by the carrier Enola Gay. It took off from the air base on the island of Tinian and it took 6 hours to reach the target. The planes flew at a high altitude and therefore no Japan fighters pursued them. Although Japanese radars detected Enola Gay, they didn’t worry much as thought that 3 planes won’t cause serious damage to the city. The bomb was dropped at 8:15 am and equaled 13,000 tons of TNT. More than 70,000 people were killed with the explosion itself. About 90% of the city’s buildings were destroyed.
Hiroshima’s broadcasting station and main telegraph stopped working and the operators from Tokyo noticed that. Reports on Hiroshima’s bombing started to come in a while from small stations in the Hiroshima’s vicinities. However they were not clear and Japanese General Staff couldn’t understand the true scope of the damage. Therefore an officer was forwarded to Hiroshima on the plane to gather credible information. When the plane was about 100 miles from Hiroshima, the officer noticed smoke from the burning city. After reporting to the General Staff, he immediately began to organize the saving measures..
However, the Japanese General Staff was notified about the reason of such devastation only in 16 hours after explosion by public announcement from Washington DC.
The atomic bomb "Fat Man" (plutonium bomb with isotope plutonium-239) with equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT and weight of 4.5 tons U.S. was scheduled for August 11. The attack was rescheduled to August 9th.On August 9th at 11:02 am the crew of the aircraft carrier dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki. The bomb exploded high above the valley of industrial Nagasaki, about halfway between the two main objectives in the city - Steel and Arms manufactures of Mitsubishi in the south, and the torpedo factory Mitsubishi in the north. More than 73 thousand people were killed or missed, another 35 thousand people died of wounds from exposure. Over 50% of patients were exposed to burns, and 30% were damaged by the shock wave, 20% exposed to ionizing radiation. Fires destroyed most of the houses.
The consequences of the bombing were no less horrific than the bombing of Hiroshima. The city resembled a cemetery that does not have survived a single stone.
Reasons for dropping the bomb
Until now there are debates on the appropriateness of dropping the bombs on Japan. From the primary sources observed it is clear that the decision was not made unanimously. The scientists who developed the radioactive theory did not want to create such deadly weapon. The reason of Einstein’s letter to Roosevelt was developing mechanisms of war prevention, as by that time Germany conducted nuclear researches and potentially could create the deadly weapon. However the further documents show that Germany was not mentioned there so often. The USSR was seen as the main opponent who can create such weapon and threaten the liberal values of Western society. As mentioned in the documents, some generals claimed that Japan is not a military threat and it is ready for peace treaty. This point was not taken into consideration and two bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The effect was more destructive than scientists expected. Even if Japan was a great threat to the US before Hiroshima, there was no necessity to drop another bomb on Nagasaki, as the Hiroshima’s effect was clearly seen by Japan and its surrender was just a matter of time. The choosing of targets clearly shows that both Hiroshima and Nagasaki were perfect targets to test the deadly weapon. No alternatives existed by that time and those who opposed Truman’s decision were suspended from their mission in Japan. General Douglas MacArthur is a clear example of such policy. Therefore it is almost impossible to find the true reasons of bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Conclusions
The essay covered the process of nuclear bomb development and the results of using it in military purposes. Germany’s nuclear program gave impulse the U.S. to develop their own nuclear weapon. The best American and European scientists worked on the Manhattan project and the bomb was constructed within only 3 years. Nuclear bomb gave the U.S. great geopolitical power, which was used on Japan. The devastation of 2 big cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki speeded up the end of World War II, however the effectiveness of such violent act is still under a big question.
Bibliography
"A Petition to the President of the United States." Last modified July 17, 1945. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.
The National Security Archive. "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II." Last modified April 27, 2007. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.
Gene Dannen. "Einstein to Roosevelt, August 2, 1939." Last modified July 26, 1998. http://www.dannen.com/ae-fdr.html.
Hogan, Michael J., ed. Hiroshima in History and Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
"Memorandum for the Deputy Chief of Staff. Japanese Peace Offer." Last modified July 13, 1945. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.
"Memorandum for the Secretary of War. Atomic Fission Bombs." Last modified April 23, 1945. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.
"Memorandum to Major General L.R.Groves. The Base of Operations of the 509th Composite Group." Last modified February 24, 1945. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.
"Memorandum to Major General L.R.Groves. Summary of Target Committee Meetings on 10 and 11 May 1945." Last modified May 11, 1945. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/.
"Potsdam Declaration." Last modified July 26, 1945. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/potsdam.pdf.
Strongman, Phil. "Hiroshima is a war crime that haunts my family, 67 years on." The Independent, August 5, 2012.
Century of Flight. "the Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima." Accessed June 6, 2013. http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/WW2/Atomic%20Bombing%20of%20Hiroshima.htm.
Winters, Francis X. Remembering Hiroshima: was it just?. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2009.
