History Course Work Samples

- In March 1766, Declaratory Act was passed by the British Parliament to affirm the Parliament’s right to pass laws in their colonies “in all cases whatsoever”. This news of repealing gave colonists confidence that British government respected and understood their situation regarding taxes. Few appreciated and recognized the claim of Parliament in passing laws “in all cases whatsoever” through the Declaratory Act.
- Colonists wanted to be represented in the Parliament by some one of their own, whereas policies of British were determined by a sole leader. Apart from the colonial legislatures, mobs in many cities demonstrated violently against Stamp Act. England who felt they owned American Sovereignty reprimanded, which led to the American Revolution and the war.
- With many peaceful forms American opposition was expressed initially to these acts. While they had no representation in the Parliament, colonists attempted to exert influence with their lobbying and petitioning. This though became the economic boycott which alerted the economic policies of British government.
- Major Gen. Jeffrey Amherst, the British Commander of British troops in North America was the greatest contributor of soured relations between Indians and the British in the last years of the War. The Pontiac Rebellion which lasted till 1764 resulted in peace treaties between British and Indians and led to Britain’s decision in leaving an army in America.
- Washington’s burgeoning reputation for courage and leadership was based on his actions in defeat to French. In Battle of Fort Duquesne, Washington has 2 of his horses shot and assumed the command when Gen. Edward Braddock was mortally wounded. Washington led the successful retreat of the colonial and British soldiers. Later, Washington led the Patriots to a inspiring win over the British army.
- Poor Planning and Failed communications were the main reason behind the failure of British Army in their war against the Patriots. Shay’s Rebellion against border restrictions and Massachusetts Banks inspired the ratification. Articles of propaganda were codified into ‘Federalist Papers’ which were published by the Federal party and they had substantial influence on Constitution.
- First Constitution of United States was adopted in 1781 and it was called Articles of Confederation. This turned out to be too weak, as it was unable to tax citizens directly, Confederation had no revenue and they could not afford any army or navy, they could not even afford the interest on war debt. Federalists promoted themselves as ‘Fathers of the People’ whereas Republicans coined ‘Friends of the People’. Federalists offered stability whereas Republicans offered Social mobility. In 1790s, American certainly needed stability.
- With serious and increasing sectional conflict which divided United States between Agricultural, Slave-Labored South states and Industrialized and Free labor in North. Antebellum culture which reflected sectional crisis, pave the way to seek sectional differences and making light of them at times. This period turned out to be the fateful development years of increasing sectional and class differences which led to the Civil War.
- Republicans had their vision of traditional America which has stronger state governments than the centre and all people were small farmers or traditional merchants. The federalist vision was rational as they respected the need for change. A country will stay stagnant if it never moves ahead and Federalists wanted the country to grow its industries and be bigger and much more united.
- Republicans rose to prominence due their principles of States’ rights, distrust on federal courts, opposing national government, navy and national bank. With Jefferson and Burr tied for presidential post in 1800 due to same number of electoral votes. Hamilton intervened and blocked Burr and allowed Thomas Jefferson to win. This led to unprecedented growth of part for next quarter century.
- Federalist failed as they were unable to accommodate their early rise, spirit of democracy and its strength in cities and towns turned out to be its own undoing. It emphasized on commerce, banking, national institutions though was great was a young nation, became heavily unpopular among Americans who remained wary of state influence. The principles of Federalists gave form to new government in future.
- In 1800, Thomas Jefferson called it “Revolution of 1800” when Republican Party took presidency and control of both congress houses. This led to quarter century of control in powerful institutions. After 1815, the term “Old Republicans” started to opposed nationalism and gain popularity in United States. Finally in 1816, many were stunned when party leaders opened Second Bank of Unites States.
- Britain and France were two superpowers which were in state of war since 1793, the warfare affected American trade directly. During the French Revolution, British united with other European powers and failed in their attempt to restore monarchy in France and attempted to stop French Expansion under Napoleon I. United States benefited from this war as they gained confidence in their military and started believing they are capable of defending honor and freedom.
- Sectionalism and slavery issue started to subside after 1820 with The Missouri Compromise. It preserves over 30 years of sectional balance and gave the country time to mature. After the political crisis of Missouri, many Americans were left with choosing sides of the Union (Nationalism) or the Regional Loyalty (Sectionalism).
- Whig Candidate in 1844 Presidential elections Henry Clay lost to the Democrat candidate James K. Polk in a closely contested election. Polk’s policy included the Texas annexation and free trade while Clay promoted his campaign on Protectionism and Cautioning Texas expansion. Both Northern and Southern Whigs were against the Texas annexation as it was considered a subject of land grab.
- Missouri Conflict of 1838, where tensions produced violence which turned into a large scale conflict which was ended by the expulsion of Saints from the state. In 1830s and 1840s, slavery abolitionists encountered resistance from North in equal comparison to Southern states which held slaves. Texas Annexation was part of presidential campaign of Democrat candidate James K. Polk in 1844.
- In early 1800s, Cotton started to become dominant in South. This led to cotton cultivation explosion in deep southern lands like Alabama, Georgia and others. For competing with the Northern states, South started to become dependent on cheaper labor which was available at handy with slaves and women.
- Life of slaves in plantations used to be grueling as they used to get little respite from their master’s tyranny and watchful eyes. These plantations used to be multitude of buildings with house of master, slaves, overseer and outbuildings, workshops and barns. The larger plantations used to be like villages which used to be isolated from outside life.
- Planters used to be pragmatic on the issue of encouraging Christianity among slaves; they wanted to control their religion just like they controlled their lives. In Southern states like South Carolina, 40% of the Baptist preachers used to own slaves. It is obvious for them to term slavery as lord’s way or part of Christianity as it has their own benefit.
- In 1815, manufacturing methods started to change with increase in production many masters started to spend their time by dealing with customers and marinating records. These masters became successful businessmen and skilled workers became working class of the world. Though there was always difference between rich and poor in major cities before 1815 but the stark contrast were visible for anyone to see now.
- Two class systems emerged in the first half of 1800s in United States. It is consisted of industrial middle class & industrial working class, this caused animosity between worker and management. These factories where these workers used to live were most responsible for their ability for moving up in social ladder and health of workers.
- The First surge of Westward expansion was accompanied by manufacturing in New England and tits increased mobility throughout the country. With many settlers moving to the Midwest, infrastructure stated to grow with their movement and major cities of the country were connected with canals, railroads and roads.
- North used to view the annexation of Texas as conspiracy from South to increase its American territory in southern direction with Mexico and other South American states, to create slave states. North could no extend their region due to presence of British forces in Canada. South used to see the annexation as expansion of cotton producing regions in United States by means of two more slave states in senate.
- With 19 Pueblos located in New Mexico, each tribe have their unique language, values, customs, songs, prayers, traditional attire, ceremonies and way of living life. Navajo Nations is the largest tribe in North America and their reservation is located on New Mexico, North Arizona and South-east Utah. Jicarilla Apaches live in New Mexico and Mescalero Apaches live in South New Mexico. All these tribes have customs which have no relation the American-Europeans living in major cities of United States these days.
- Manifest destiny was coined in 19th Century for designating belief that United States is destined or divinely ordained to expand in North American continent from Pacific to the Atlantic seabed. Manifest destiny used to interpret the eventual absorption of all North American nations of Mexico, Canada, Central America and Cuba.
- Passing of Kansas Nebraska Act caused the split of Whig party. With northern Whigs opposing the bill and the Southern Whigs voting for it. Northern Whigs were against it due to the emotional issue like slavery being promoted with this Act. With Northern Whigs identifying themselves with non-slavery acts they opposed it.
- Northerners used to support the Republican/Whig party and used to have careers in Medicine, business or education. 2/3 of the railroads were in northern regions and the industrial economy of north was on boom. In contrast, Southerners used to support Democratic Party and went for careers in agriculture or military. With just 35% of the railroads located in south travelling used to be a little tougher and the economy based on agriculture has started to stall.
- Confederate generals typically won battles even when they were outnumbered by the Union troops. The biggest evidence of this was the case of Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson who did so in 1962 at the Shenandoah Valley. There were other incidents like these which showcased despite union having larger numbers Confederate had the tactical acumen.
- Battle of Antietam in 1962 represented successful halt of Lee’s Northern invasion. With this halt, Lincoln issued his preliminary emancipation proclamation to enlighten the main reason behind the civil war, abolishing slavery. Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 ended Lee’s Northern invasion. This battle helped Union troops to gain confidence and myth of confederate invincibility was over.
- Some of the advantages enjoyed by Union army of North over Confederate of South. North has 22 million people in comparison to 9 million in south. The industrial capacity of North was greater with 97% of the Firearms and 94% of the pig iron being produced in North. Even agriculturally north were ahead, Confederacy targeted getting materials from Europe but Union used their Navy to block any possible trade.
- The events which best describe reconstruction events are The Wade-Davis Bill and the Freedmen’s Bureau, Presidential Reconstruction, Progressive Legislation for Blacks, Johnson’s “Swing Around the Circle”, Radical Reconstruction, Johnson’s Impeachment, The Black Codes and Ku Klux Klan, Carpetbaggers, Scalawags, and Sharecroppers, Grant’s Presidency, Liberal Republicans and the Election of 1872, The Depression of 1873, Striking Down Radical Reconstruction, The Disputed Election of 1876 and The Compromise of 1877. The Reconstruction reforms were ended by the Union to overcome the disputed election of 1876, where compromise was made and Republican candidate Rutherford B Hayes was elected President and Union withdrew troops from the Southern states.
- Reconstruction got the Black freedom, citizenship and right to vote but Southern whites blamed their former slaves for reconstruction issues. Problems did not end here as racial groups like Ku Klux Klan performed lynching of blacks, in some cases without any record of crimes. True equality which was envisioned by Abraham Lincoln in his abolishing slavery plans was only achieved after the civil rights movement of 1960s.
- The reasons for Republican party’s rise in south are the backlash from civil rights legislation by the Democrats and Optimism of Ronald Reagan as the President where Republican gained respect of Southern Whites with their reforms on low taxes, reduced spending on military and government needs made Republican image better in eyes of Southern conservative population.
Under JFK, Democrats regained the White House and after his assassination Lyndon Johnson continued the push for Civil Rights Legislation. This effort was sincerely appreciated by many southern blacks who started to realign themselves with the Democratic Party.