American History Exam: Four Essays
Essay 1: Religion in the Colonial Era
This essay discusses the role religion played in the colonial era, how it contributed to the motives behind colonization and shaping the colonies. It also reviews differing religious factors in the various colonial regions. Having reviewed the required reading by Edwards et al. (2012), the findings are that religion was important in the colonization and that the different religions and national policies involved helped shape the various colonies accordingly.
Many migrants were either escaping from religious persecution, or went as missionaries to promote “the Christian religion to such People as yet live in Darkness.” In southern areas including Florida, the Spanish conquerors forcibly imposed Catholicism on the indigenous population, while resisting the influx of French Protestants. French Protestants were banned by their Catholic King from migrating to their colony in the northeast. In the Great Lakes area, French Catholic priests converted Indians to Catholicism, though the Indians became sceptical when European diseases raged unchecked.
The Dutch established New Netherland, whose capital was New Amsterdam, located on Manhattan Island. The colony was invaded in 1694 by the English. They imposed English law and made the Dutch settlers swear allegiance. However, the Dutch resisted assimilation, continuing to follow the Dutch Reformed Church, giving the colony the feel of “a conquered Foreign Province held by the terror of a Garrison.”
The English established semi-autonomous settler-colonies. Virginia, after a hesitant start, was made a Royal Colony in 1624 and featured a legally-established Church of England. However, neighboring Maryland set up a Catholic establishment, which later was obliged to become multi-denominational by a Protestant majority. New England colonists were Puritans fleeing from King James I, who had threatened to drive them from England “or worse.”
As has been shown, religion was an important factor in North American colonization and the different religions and policies involved helped shape the various colonies accordingly. Catholicism was the primary religion of the Spanish and the French. However, for the Dutch and English (other than Maryland) colonies, the Protestant religions held sway.
Essay 2: The Background to the Declaration of Independence
In 1763 British colonists were proud members of the British Empire. However, they became disenchanted when the British government tried to “transform a loose empire into more of a transatlantic nation-state.” This essay explains how and why attitudes changed later, and what led to the colonists’ decision to sever ties with Britain and declare independence.
The problems began when in 1763 the British government introduced new taxes in the form of the Stamp Act, which it was anticipated “will be very oppressive.” According to Edwards et al., it is possible that “careful statecraft and political compromise” might have avoided war. However, “neither statecraft nor compromise was in evidence.” These taxes were introduced by the government to help with the enormous war debts incurred in defeating the French and Spanish in Canada and Florida respectively. In addition, a more rigid rule by the British Parliament through government administrators was introduced.
That war also caused mutual hostility between British generals and the colonial militia leaders. Not only were there serious strategic disagreements, but “the presence of 25,000 British troops revealed sharp cultural differences.” The Americans found the British officers too arrogant and their soldiers “little better than slaves.” General Wolfe viewed the American troops as “drawn from the dregs of society.” He felt they could not be depended upon in battle.
Relations between Britain and its American colonies deteriorated, bringing violent protest, including rioting. A Patriot movement brought many factions together, becoming what Edwards et al. described as “a formidable political force.” Parliament in Britain tried to placate the colonists by implementing compromises, including repealing the Stamp Act in 1766. However, in 1767 The Townshend Act and the Revenue Act raised further taxes which succeeded only in inflaming American anger and opposition. Ultimately, war broke out, amid further calls for independence, which resulted in its formal declaration in July 1776.
It is apparent that British attempts to raise taxes in the colonies and to introduce direct government control caused attitudes to harden against colonial rule. The imposition of new taxes led to mounting opposition, protests and rioting. Despite compromise efforts by the British government, armed conflicts broke out. That in turn led to calls for independence which was formally declared in July of 1776, severing former ties with Britain.
Essay 3: Impact of the Second Great Awakening on American Society
The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival in the U.S. between about 1790 and 1820. This essay assesses its impact on American society. It also discusses the reform movements inspired by it, and the lasting effects it had on American society and politics. Further, the essay considers the regions and groups among which it was most prevalent.
The Second Great Awakening was one element of a concerted attempt by white Americans to develop an extension of their principles of Republicanism. Those principles included capitalism, social values including family relationships, and – particularly of interest for this essay – an “emergent Christian civilization that would redeem the world.” Edwards et al. define this as a mission based on morals, which would “for better or worse” influence future American diplomacy. Its effect was also to make the U.S. “a genuinely Christian society.”
The Great Awakening most advantaged those churches that were democratically governed and preached spiritual equality. These were the Evangelical Methodist and Baptist churches which featured a well-developed culture run on egalitarian principles. The Presbyterian Church, which elected laymen to its synods, also proved popular. The Catholic Church, dominated by the bishops and their priests, was less popular. Also, the Protestant Episcopal Church with a clerical hierarchy and dominance by rich patrons was also less attractive.
The Great Awakening achieved it greatest impact in Kentucky and in New York State. The effect then spread as many farmers and their families migrated further west, taking that religious enthusiasm and fervor along with them. Women in particular were attracted to the movement, providing many churches with helpers and beginning a huge wave of social reform. In the South though, there was opposition from husbands objecting to this development.
The impact on American society was considerable and enduring. Followers of the Evangelical Methodist and Baptist churches were particularly inspired by it, especially women. As a consequence American society and politics were influenced by the effect of women having greater “say” in society. Kentucky and New York State saw the greatest impact, though the effects spread west along with migrating farmers and their families.
Essay 4: Federal Government Measures Adopted During Reconstruction
Although many assume that, after the Civil War, the federal government simply abandoned freed people, that was not the case. In fact the government expanded its powers during Reconstruction to extend and protect their civil and political rights. This essay reviews measures adopted by the federal government during Reconstruction. It also explains how the federal approach changed over time, and assesses why Reconstruction ultimately failed.
First of the measures planned by President Lincoln’s government was the Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery. For a state to be restored to the Union, ten percent of the voters had to swear an oath of loyalty, and the State had to approve the Thirteenth Amendment. However, under Lincoln’s successor Andrew Johnson slavery was restored “in all but name” in the southern states when laws known as “Black Codes” were passed. Subsequently, the Fourteenth Amendment acted to make equality enforceable. Then Congress passed the 1867 Reconstruction Act which divided the south into five military districts, and to re-enter the Union, each state had to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and give freed slaves the vote.
Opposition from the southern states meant further measures were still required. In 1868, under President Ulysses Grant, the Fifteenth Amendment forbade the states “to deny citizens the right to vote on the grounds of race, color, or ‘previous condition of servitude’.” That amendment was passed in 1869. However, it had angered women who were excluded by omission from the voting protection afforded to freed black male slaves.
Essentially, Reconstruction had ultimately failed because the federal government had simply failed to overcome the entrenched attitudes of the whites in the south. Grant’s administration tired of the ongoing effort of enforcing federal legislation in this arena. The result was that without continuing federal pressure, the southern states were left to their own devices. As a consequence, the grand Reconstruction ideals faded away, and Reconstruction effectively ended in 1876 won by the Republicans by granting concessions in South Carolina and Louisiana.
In conclusion, despite measures introduced by successive governments to achieve the goals of Reconstruction (the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments) it ultimately failed. The federal approach changed over time to adapt to changing political situations and pressures, yet did not totally succeed. It failed because resistance to the necessary constitutional changes was so strong in the southern states and because the federal government lacked the enthusiasm and drive to see it through to a successful conclusion against determined opposition.
Bibliography
Edwards, Rebecca, Henretta, James, Self, Robert. America, A Concise History. Boston: Bedford / St. Martin’s, 2012.
