While Lightner Witmer has been largely credited with the conceptualization and creation of a separate field of study for school psychology (D’Amato et al., 2011), it has it’s true roots, in many ways, in the creation of the IQ test. The IQ test was pioneered by Alfred Binet who was specifically interested in the standards of the normal mind. Today, the Binet-Simon scale, first generated in 1905, is still used in schools to determine a child’s overall ability to perform certain tasks (Binet & Simon, 1905). Perhaps more significantly, however, it was significant that Binet recognized that a measure of a child’s IQ was fundamentally different than working to measure an adults IQ. This recognition of the difference in the psychological states of children and adults is a fundamental corner stone in school psychology (Binet & Simon, 1905).
This then, gives way to the more orthodox starting point of school psychology, with the work of Lightner Witmer, who was a proponent of using individualized psychological examinations to structure multidisciplinary, and individualized interventions for students with special needs (D’Amato et al., 2011). This is closely in keeping with Binet’s theory on IQ, given that he believed his IQ testing could be used to create classifications of students for providing more meaningful special education services (Nicolas et al., 2013). More specifically, Witmer stated, regarding the overall principle of his work, that advocating for children with special needs could be accomplished in the school setting if testing was effectively used "to discover mental and moral defects and to treat the child in such a way that these defects may be overcome or rendered harmless through the development of other mental and moral traits" (Fagan, 1992).
Further, in 1918, compulsory school attendance, born out of social reforms designed to protect children, lead to the movement away from placing children in asylums or directly into the workforce, or keeping them home, when they had learning deficits, and instead enrolling all children into school equally. When specific students began to struggle, and failed to learn at the same rate, or in the same way, as their peers, it became clear that the new field of psychology, now known as school psychology, was necessary in assuring that all students were meaningfully educated within the school setting. As a result, during the years surrounding the implementation of social reform, and compulsory schooling, both urban and rural schools worked to create classrooms specially directed to meet the needs of special needs students, or students who were differently able, through the application off school psychology (Fagan, 1992).
As school psychology became a new form of functional psychology, which was directly interested in childhood behaviors, ways of thinking, learning processes, and brain function (Philips, 1990). This, as it was developed, was designed to allow school psychologists to understand what caused students to behave in certain ways, and how their psychological state impacts their ability to learn. It could, therefore, improve children’s lives by ensuring that their educational experience was approached in a way that fit with their psychological state.
Both the compulsory schools legislation and the development of school psychology had the same basic goals at heart, which were pursued well into the beginnings of the 20th century. They were focused, at least to some degree, on wanting to improve condition of children’s lives, protect children from harsh labor conditions, prepare children for a more meaningful future, ensure that all children had rights, and access to the future. Together, they resulted in the growth of clinical psychology, as a means of studying and understanding human psychology, and creating differentiated educational approaches.
These changes closely coincided with the work of Granville Stanley Hall, who founded the child study movement. This movement created a foundational concept of a “normal child”, and focused far more on the actions of administrators, teachers, and parents than on the ability level of children. He theorized that children should be classified as “normal” or “exceptional” and by that classification, given support needed to ensure success (Fagan, 1992). The classification of a normal child considered a child’s basic sensory capabilities, physical characteristics and skills, humor, play, religious concepts, memory, attention span, and other cognitive and physical characteristics, as it related other educability (Davidson & Benjamin, 1987). This created the theoretical foundation necessary to generate pedagogical practices that could benefit exceptional children, and create a clear link between education and acceptance of those differently abled (Davidson & Benjamin, 1987).
In the late 1920s and early 1930, the field of school psychology had grown to the point that it was capable of supporting professionals within the field. More specifically, Arnold Gesell was named the first official school psychologist, in the 1920s. He served for the Connecticut State Board of Education, and his experiences allowed him to further the academic literature in the field, writing multiple texts on school psychology during his tenure. He also helped to develop classes, or a set curriculum, for children with disabilities. He also developed the question of nature vs nurture as it relates to child development, adding to school psychology the concept that child misbehavior, and inability to learn could be the result of a damaged psyche, rather than a mental disability (Salkind, 2004).
This work lead right up to the first book printed regarding school psychology. This work by Gertrude Hildreth, was published in 1930, and titled Psychological Services for School Problems. The book applied psychology to the problem that were being actively experienced in schools, and created actively applied known psychological techniques to school related problems, including: instructional issues, assessment of achievement, interpretation of test scores, how to group students, how to provide vocational education, and more.(Plotts, 2013).
After Gertrude Hildreth’s work, school psychology was actively used, but not necessarily further developed until the 1950s. However, in Augusto of 1954, the Thayer Conferences was held, and school psychology was significantly developed as a result. The American Psychological Association hosted the Thayer Conference in order to discus and develop the roles of educators, administrators and other professionals in the implementation of school psychology, the training and credentials needed for a practicing school psychologist, and other regulations and guidelines for the use of school psychology in the educational setting (Ysseldyke & Schakel, 1983).
The conference was held over nine days and yielded number of significant changes for the relatively young profession of school psychologists. Perhaps the most significant of these changes was the creation of a firm definition of what a school psychologist is and what their role is within the larger body of educators (Fagan 2005). Ultimately, it was determined that a school phycologist is in the school system to assist school personnel in identifying children with exceptional needs, understanding their behaviors, and developing a plan for the assistance of children identified as at risk (D’Amato et al., 2011). The creation of this definition is important, because before the conference professionals working as school psychologists were known by more than seventy five different professional titles, and as such their role, and responsibilities were unclear. However, the conference created a more firm set of expectations, and developed the concept of school psychology into a defined professional role (Fagan, 2005).
Ultimately, these works, along with the passage of legislation, like the IDEA and ADA, have led to the development of special education programs in schools. As such school psychology is handed predominantly through specialized professionals, who go through a very specific training programs (Reschly, 2000). These programs marry the basic concepts of school psychology, and the best practices of education to create educational team members who are fully prepared to help students with their unique needs. At current, school psychology training programs include studies in: data based decision making, data based accountability, consultation regarding students, collaboration between educational team members, effective instruction of students with special needs, development of cognitive/academic skills among exceptional students, socialization and development of life skills, including both vocational and independent living skills for those who need that form of instruction, student diversity and the impact thereof, school and systems organization, leadership, policy development and developing a school climate that supports exceptional children, mental health, especially as it relates to crisis prevention and intervention, research and evaluation of program impact, and school psychology practice and development (Committee on Accreditation, 2008). This curriculum has been designed to ensure that students receive the services that they need, and to ensure that school psychology remains on the cutting edge of known best practices, and evolving the way that children with special needs are evaluated and educated, to help them get the most out of their educational experience.
The school psychology subset of the larger psychological field is designed to combine the basic principles of education with the tenants of psychology and testing basics in order to truly understand the behaviors and needs of children. The clinical psychology approach to educating children allows children’s mental health, and intelligence to become active considerations in the way they are educated, and the way that schools work to accommodate their individual needs. The development of school psychology, as a field, created a new profession, for school psychologists, who work within the school setting to facilitate coordination between administrators and teachers, and creation of policies and programs that support students, and to help evaluate students in order to fit them to services that will support their long term learning goals. Considering the history and development of school psychology can help highlight its significance and demonstrate the direction that it is headed in the future as well.
References:
Committee on Accreditation (January 1, 2008), Guidelines and principles for accreditation of programs in professional psychology, Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association,
D’Amato, R. C., Zafiris, C., Mcconnell, E., & Dean, R. S. (2011). The History of School Psychology: Understanding the Past to Not Repeat It. Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195369809.013.0015
Davidson, E., & Benjamin, L. (1987). A History of the Child Study Movement in America (J. A. Glover & R. R. Ronning, Eds.). In Historical foundations of educational psychology (pp. 41-60). New York: Plenum Press.
Fagan, Thomas K. (1992). "Compulsory Schooling, Child Study, Clinical Psychology, and Special Education: Origins of School Psychology". American Psychologist 47 (2): 236–243. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.2.236. ISSN 0003-066X.
Phillips, Beeman N. (1990). School Psychology at a Turning Point: Ensuring a Bright Future for the Profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-1-55542-195-3.
Reschly, D.J. (2000). The present and future status of school psychology in the United States. School Psychology Review 29(4): 507-522.
Salkind, N. J. (2004). An introduction to theories of human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Ysseldyke, J.E.; Schakel, J.A. (1983). "Directions in school psychology". In ed. by Hynd, G.W. The school psychologist : an introduction (1st ed.). Syracuse N.Y: Syracuse University Press. pp. 3–26. ISBN 978-0-8156-2290-1.
