M 3/7 Topic: What kind of cultures were at war during 1920s?
During 1920s two types of American cultures were at war: urban culture and rural culture. New urban culture was centered in cities and had such features as religious and ethnic pluralism due to immigration, new forms of mass entertainment (radio and motion pictures), liberated sexual rules. Rural culture concentrated in rural areas of America considered new urban culture not as an expansion of freedom, but as a threat to traditional values, religion and understanding of American freedom. An example of cultural wars was the Scopes trial (teacher of public school violated the law by teaching Darwin’s theory of evolution) which reflected the contradictions between fundamentalists and modernists or two different definitions of American freedom – voluntary adherence to time-honored religious beliefs and right to independent thinking and self-expression respectively.
The period of 1920s in America was marked by rise of cities, production increase and economic growth, fast development of different business types and science. But in 1929 the stock market crashed, however, it wasn’t the only reason of Great Depression. The evidences of economic crisis already revealed themselves before. Southern states faced real-estate speculation, banking system failure and areas of undeveloped land. Non-equal distribution of income and stagnation in farms led to the reduction of purchasing activity, sales of consumer goods and new cars reduced as well, European demand for American goods declined as European economy recovered after war. As the global financial system was based on gold, and the number of gold is limited, a deficit of money emerged. Germany failed to pay reparation payments to France and Britain; as a consequence, these two countries stopped paying debts to American banks. All over the world the banks failed as depositors and withdrew the money, therefore, many families lost their savings. The bottom of economic depression was reached in 1932.
W 3/23 Topic: What were the major initiatives of the second New Deal and what were its limitations?
The Second New Deal was focused on economic security to protect the Americans against poverty and unemployment. Its major initiatives were the following: creation of Rural Electrification Agency to provide bigger number of Americans with electricity, federal assistance to farmers, establishment of Work Progress Administration to ensure the employment for Americans in different fields, Wagner Act which empowered the National Labor Board to supervise the elections in which employees voted on union representation, it also outlawed “unfair labor practices”, including the firing and blacklisting of union organizers. Social Security Act of 1935 was the main initiative of Second New deal, as it created a system of unemployment insurance, old age pensions, and provided for aid to disabled, the elderly poor, and families with dependent children.
The limitations of Second New Deal were decentralization of programs, lower levels of public spending and covering fewer citizens. For example, Social Security system was funded both by national and local sources; old age pensions were administered nationally but paid for by taxes on employers and employees, the states kept significant control over the level of benefits. Combination of local administration and the fact that domestic and agricultural workers were not covered by unemployment and old age benefits meant that Social Security did not include large number of Americans, especially, unmarried women and non-whites.
Which groups were helped and how?
Second New Deal initiatives provided help to several groups of population. One of such groups included farmers. First of all, establishment of Rural Electrification Agency ensured the electricity supply to the farms and, thus, allowed an access to different electric devices and equipment accelerating the farming works. The government also promoted soil conservation and family farming based on the believe that rural poverty is caused poor use of natural resources, and farmers were provided with federal assistance aimed at soil loss reduction. The government also purchased the areas of undeveloped land and turned them into parks. As a consequence, the agricultural methods in use became more environment-friendly, and the main beneficiaries of all these initiatives were landowners, but not tenants or migrant workers. Establishment of Works Progress Administration (WPA) helped to provide the work to 3 million of Americans in many fields, such as construction of public buildings and bridges, roads and airports, an important feature of this organization was the hiring of many professionals excluded before, such as office workers, doctors and dentists. Thanks to WPA art was developed significantly. It provided the job to artists in the decoration of public buildings with murals; the writers were involved into the writing of local histories, guidebooks and recording of recollections of ordinary Americans. Creation of Federal Music Project and Federal Dance Project involved many musicians and dancers into different performances, even the youth was helped by the establishment of National Youth Administration. Therefore, establishment of Administrations in all possible fields helped to cover and involve huge numbers of different population groups.
How did criticism of the New Deal and grass roots movements shape its evolution?
In 1930s the workers, dissatisfied with low wages and unfavorable work conditions, began to announce their demands and initiate the strikes in different fields of industry. Their requirements included not only salary increase, but also demand of basic civil rights, right to picket, distribute literature and meet for discussion of complaints. Emergence of such demands required the establishment of labor unions. As a result, Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) was established; it aimed at creation of unions in the most important industries of USA. In 1935 Wagner Act was adopted and provided the workers with legal rights for union establishment.
New Deal critics believed that implementation of economic reforms was too slow, and economic equality and social justice cannot be reached because of imbalance of wealth and income. An idea of Great Depression cause as a lack of consumer demand produced the claims of creating consumer’s demand by salary increase. As the first New Deal failed to reach all the goals, Roosevelt began implementation of Second New Deal as a respond to the claims on redistribution of national income and, thus, providing the support to purchasing power of country.
F 3/25 Topic: Assess how the New Deal recast the meaning of American freedom?
The New Deal recast the idea of American freedom by linking it to the expanding power of national state. The government now was seen by population as responsible for ensuring every man with a job. The freedom was becoming not political, but social and industrial. Roosevelt made the word “freedom” a slogan of the New Deal. The freedom by Roosevelt was linked with economic security, and economic inequality was considered as the worst enemy.
What were the characteristics of Popular Front culture in the 1930s?
The Popular Front culture in 1930s had its own vision of America and defined ethnic and racial diversity as the glory of American society, “American way of life” meant unionism and social citizenship. Artists and writers in their works focused on the daily life of farmers and city dwellers. Genuine Americanism in art had two focuses: art about the people (migrant workers and sharecroppers) and art created by the people (black spirituals). In music field preservation of American folk music was encouraged. Hollywood movies were directed by new immigrants and focused on the life of middle class in the cities. Popular Front believed that country’s strength was in diversity, tolerance, and the rejection of ethnic prejudice and class privilege. Cultural pluralism was the focus of Popular Front culture and included not only middle-class Anglo-Saxons but also blacks, immigrants, and the working class. Racism couldn’t be the feature of true Americanism, and ethnic and religious tolerance were broadly promoted defining pluralism as “the American way.” Law on civil rights for blacks in the legal field was extended, and states were prohibited to systematically exclude blacks from juries. Antilynching laws and the return of voting rights to southern blacks were passed. Many black workers took part in the labor movement, and CIO initiated broad educational campaigns to persuade white workers to recognize the interests they shared with their black counterparts. Another central element of Popular Front public culture was its mobilization for civil liberties, especially the right of labor to organize.
Consider who was opposed to the New Deal and why.
Part of opposition to the New Deal was formed by representatives of big conservative businesses who were against creation of labor unions, prohibition of child labor products from interstate commerce and overtime payment. The opposition to the New Deal also came from conservative Republican judges who understood freedom in its traditional way as “liberty of contract”, they considered New Deal as a threat to individual liberty and invalidated some key New Deal’s laws. Another opposing group was formed by so called populists such as Huey Long, Charles E.Coughlin and Francis Towncend who considered the pace of economic recovery as very slow and offered their own plans to improve the situation for American workers.
W 3/30 Topic: World War II. What steps led to American intervention in World War II?
Japan’s invasion to Manchuria and further movement to China, Hitler’s campaign on global European control and development of fascism in Italy under the guidance of Mussolini caused Roosevelt’s concern. The beginning of war in Europe and Hitler’s success after Poland’s invasion made Roosevelt consider Hitler as a direct threat to the United States. Despite isolationism, USA agreed to provide arms to Britain and approved military rearmament. As the international situation was worsening, the Congress passed Lend-Lease Act allowing providing military aid to allies as long as the countries could guarantee the return after the war end. Since Japan was an enemy of USA, its American assets were frozen, and oil sale to Japan was prohibited. America’s attention was focused on European events, but actions from Japan were expected in the Pacific. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked American naval base in Pearl Harbor, producing enormous losses of American troops. Congress passed the declaration of war against Japan, and Germany declared the war to USA.
How did American memories of World War I experiences shape the steps that F.D.R. needed to take to deal with global events.
After World War, dealing with economic crisis of 1930s, America was not largely involved in international affairs and focused on its problems. With the beginning of European events, Japanese and German threat for most of Americans seemed to be very distant. Many people believed that USA participation in World War I was mistaken. Congress and President’s Administration preferred to hold the policy of isolationism by passing a number of Neutrality Acts. As Hitler’s aggression was growing, Roosevelt’s concerns increased, but he kept on taking decision related to global events, such as arms supply to Britain, with reluctance and after long congressional debates.
Explain how different groups viewed this.
In USA there were both supporters and opponents of US involvement to the World War II.
Opponents of USA involvement included American students who initiated a strike for peace and non-involvement in 1935 all over country in college campuses and ordinary Americans who were against the involvement remembering the experience of World War I. The group of USA involvement supporters included some Hitler’s followers concerned with communism spread and businessmen who willed to keep on doing business in Europe. This group established America First Committee; its members included many famous people such as Henry Ford, Father Coughlin and Charles A.Lindsbergh. War supporters tried to make the country mobilize for war by popularizing different inspiring slogans. Besides businessmen, this group also included refugees from countries occupied by Hitler and established Freedom House, members of which were famous and powerful people and demanded the declaration of war.
F 4/1 Topic: World War II. How did the United States mobilize resources and opinion for the war effort?
For mobilization of resources USA established different agencies such as War Production Board, War Manpower Commission and Office of Price Administration aimed at regulation of labor allocation, fixing wages, rents and prices, controlling shipping industry and establishing manufacturing quotas. Civilian industries were forced to retrofit for war production. The taxes were increased, and government withheld income tax directly from weekly paychecks. Big business was offered different incentives such as low-interest loans, tax concessions and contracts with guaranteed profit. Government was making investments to the development of science in order to produce new electronic and technological devices that could help to win the war, initiated the establishment and construction of new industrial centers and shipyards. South experienced a shift from agricultural to industrial employment. The situation was also favorable for labor unions as the reluctant employers were forced to recognize labor unions by the governments. With the purpose to mobilize public opinion the Office of War Information (OWI) was established in 1942. It used all types of media in order to distribute the information on the actual goal of war – fighting against fascism, and not the return of “payback” to Japan for Pearl Harbor attack. After OWI financing reduction by Congress, War Advertising Council was created which controlled private companies promoting patriotic ideas along with their brand names and consumer culture.
Consider how race, ethnicity and gender played a part in these efforts.
Since men served in the army, many positions in the industry were occupied by women in order to keep the pace of economic development. Mass media also encouraged women to work by publications and Hollywood movies. The war suddenly gave women an opportunity to fill in the vacant places in the industry, government and other fields historically considered as men’s, for example, aircraft manufacturing. However, their salaries were still lower than men’s, and labor unions had to resolve new issues related to equal labor payment, maternity leave and childcare facilities for working mothers. Women still were not taken seriously; their input was considered temporary, and not as their freedom expansion. For different ethnicities living in the United States the war meant new era, they left ethnic neighborhoods in order to join the army or start working at industrial facilities. To some extent war promoted pluralism and ethnic diversity: Americanism now served as a counterbalance to Nazism. The ethnic diversity was largely promoted in Hollywood movies showing people of different ethnic backgrounds as friends and allies. But Jews still were rejected by government and business circles. Despite their pursuit by fascist in Europe, USA accepted limited number of Jews, and Congress did not pass Roosevelt’s act on air strikes of German concentration camps.
What was the impact of this on various groups mobilized for war?
War had a bigger impact on ethnic groups and not the whites. For Mexicans governments of both countries in 1942 established bracero program allowing many Mexicans to enter USA and take the jobs in agriculture and other fields. They were not able to join labor unions, but second generation of Mexican-Americans left ethnic neighborhoods and joined the army. American Indians began to integrate into American life, they left reservations in order to work in the industries or join the army. The children of Chinese, Korean and Philippine immigrants worked at the industries and served in the Army. Chinese immigrants benefited from establishment of nationality quota instead of a complete exclusion. But for Japanese Americans situation was complicated because of Japan alliance with Germany and Pearl Harbor attack. The hatred to Japanese in USA was growing, and mass media launched the campaigns against Japan presenting them in a very bad way. Many Japanese were born in USA and spoke English only, but government viewed them as potential spies. This led to the creation of internment camps with quasi-military discipline for Japanese, and American courts preferred to stay away from these events, the recognition of injustice followed after war, but the apologies of Congress were only presented in 1988. In the beginning of the war the number of blacks in army, navy and air force was limited or excluded, but need for more people and higher production made the government to issue Executive Order 8802 prohibiting discrimination at defense jobs. But critics often compared American racial segregation with German racist policy and blamed USA for adherence to Hitler’s ideas. By 1945 racial equality took an essential place in political agenda, and for blacks the war period in general meant the civil rights movement emergence.
F 4/8 Topic: What were the major initiatives of Truman’s Fair Deal?
Truman’s Fair Deal announced in September 1945 was focused on the improvement of social safety net and increased standard of living of ordinary Americans. He called on Congress to increase the minimum wage, enact a program of national health insurance, and expand public housing, Social Security, and aid to education. Republicans in Congress did not pass Truman’s program. In the field of Civil Rights Truman issued an order on desegregation of armed forces and offered some other initiatives which were not passed by the Congress. However, during his presidency the fair employment practices commissions were established, some cities passed the laws against discrimination in access to jobs and public accommodations, and lynching was prohibited.
Was it an important expansion of the welfare state for certain individuals?
Welfare state concept and Fair Deal were aimed at improvement of standard of living for workers, but Truman’s welfare state idea was not supported by Republicans. The Congress adopted tax cuts for wealthy Americans, thus, preventing the rest and poorest part of population from equal welfare. Although Truman vetoed the Taft-Hartley Act, the Republicans managed to pass it. As the act significantly limited capabilities of labor unions, situation worsened for workers.
What was the place of workers at this time when it came to labor organizations?
Labor unions became main supporters in the protection of workers’ rights; in 1946 American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations initiated so called Operation Dixie aimed at unionization of South industries, and particularly, the textile one. During the years of Truman’s presidency the positions of workers were difficult because of small wages, high inflations and end of war production. Fast decrease of workers income produced huge strike wave which was called the biggest in American history. The workers of almost all industries such as coal, railroads, steel, auto and even movie production stopped their work and demanded higher wages. After the strikes ending and preventing from future strikes, federal “fact-finding boards’ appointed by the President made general recommendations on wage increase, but still it was not enough to return to purchasing power to wartime levels. However, Democratic Party policy led to the loss in the elections of 1946; many white workers did not will to enter interracial labor unions, and, as a result of all these events, Operation Dixie failed. The position of workers worsened after the passage of Taft-Hartley Act in 1947, which reduced the previous achievements of organized labor; the president could now announce “cooling-off period” before the strike, banned sympathy strikes and secondary boycotts, and the workers could be hired without being the member of labor union. This act created additional difficulties for workers organization into labor unions and became a reason of decline of organized labor’s share in the workforce of the country.
M 4/11 Topic: What were the effects of anti-Communism on American politics and culture, particularly considering artists, authors, actors, women, etc?
Anti-communism has become an integral part of after-cold War America and influenced all the aspects of living. Public authorities and civil organizations initiated anti-Communist campaigns aimed at identification of those who were loyal to Communism or finding Soviet spies. As a result of such investigations, many people were either fired from their jobs or preferred to leave the job voluntarily. Hollywood also couldn’t avoid the hearings regarding communist impact, when famous actors, writers and directors had to take part in hearings by House Un-American Activities Committee, and those who refused to name the communists were sentenced to jail, blacklisted or accused of loyalty to Communists. This period was also marked by a number of civil spy trials, during one of them the leaders of Communist Party were sentenced to be put to jail. Another famous and still arguable case was the trial against Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, Jewish Communist couple. Such trials fueled the idea of Soviet spies within the American society. In political field anticommunism was used by all the parties involved. The excess of anticommunist crusade concerned President Truman and he tried to veto the McCarran Internal Security Bill of 1950 and McCarran – Walter Act of 1952 related to immigration issues and quotas, but the Congress passed both of them. Anticommunism extended its limits beyond communism and took new form when about 1 million of Mexicans were deported during the year.
How did Joseph McCarthy become so influential and powerful at this time?
In an atmosphere of American anti-Communism hysteria of 1950s, Wisconsin senator, Joseph McCarthy, took a chance to promote himself in political field. In 1950 he announced to have a list of 205 communists working in the State Department. The number was changing regularly, but, none of those communists was identified. However, McCarthy using his persuasion held a number of hearings against some persons from Defense Department, the Voice of America and other public authorities. He also became so powerful because initially received support of interested Republicans who planned to use his policy against Truman administration.
How was this connected to civil rights?
Initially Truman’s loyalty program wasn’t supported by main civil rights organizations of African-Americans, such as NAACP and Urban League. Despite the number of few open-speaking critics, such organizations had to follow the governmental policy and remove communists from their structures. At the same time anti-communism induced new thinking of civil rights organizations and attempt to use the anticommunist ideology for their own goals. Announcing that racial inequality in America worsens its image abroad and assists to Russian plans, the organizations only reinforced new American anticommunist ideology. But this period was crucial to the civil rights as it meant a beginning of rising movement.
W 4/14 Topic: What was the culture of the 1950s like for men and women?
New American way of life and development of suburban culture changed the situation for women. After the end of war, many of them lost industrial jobs, and those who worked were mostly occupied in low-salary, nonunion jobs, such as clerical, sales, and service labor. After some dropdown after war, the number of working women increased, but the nature of their work was different. They could work part-time and didn’t have to make a career, and the salary for women was much lower than for men. Now men were the main breadwinners, and women were supposed to stay at home. TV culture popularized marriage as the main goal for women, and during 1950s women married in younger age and had more children comparing to previous history periods. Cold War also used family as a mean of its ideology. American women ability to stay at home and not work was “separating” USA from Communist countries, where the number of working women was very high. Another feature of this period was the decline in the spread of feminism, and the will of woman to work could be considered as mental disorder. In conditions of suburban America the idea of life for women without work and dedication of full time to children and family was finally implemented.
Why was television important?
In 1950s television replaced newspapers, and now served as a main source of information and a mean to unite all American community by shared values of the American middle class, making the idea of equal welfare reachable for everyone. Watching TV was the main type of leisure for nation and influenced its eating habits by popularizing frozen food. Advertisement was developing very fast, and big corporations sponsored different TV shows, thus, TV became the main promoter of “consumer society”.
Who were the libertarians emerging at this time?
In 1950s a few thinkers initiated the revision of conservatism and reclaimed the idea of freedom from liberals. Despite the ignoring by bigger circles, their ideas would define conservative thought for the next half-century. The group called “libertarian” conservatives redefined freedom as individual autonomy, limited government, and unregulated capitalism. Many conservative entrepreneurs at South and West supported the ideas of non-interference of state to the economy. These ideas were promoted in the writings of the young economist Milton Friedman, in his work Capitalism and Freedom the free market was defined as the necessary foundation for individual liberty. Friedman called for turning over to the private sector virtually all government functions and the repeal of minimum wage laws, the graduated income tax, and the Social Security system. According to him, unlimited choice was supposed to exist in every aspect of life, and the government should seek to regulate neither the economy nor individual conduct.
M 4/18 Topic: What was the significance of the election of 1960s?
Presidential race of 1960s was held between Republican Richard Nixon and Democrat John F. Kennedy. The voting results for two candidates were very close, but the winner was John F.Kennedy. He became first Catholic president of USA, despite the fears of Protestant population that he will be under the control of Pope and support Church doctrine on controversial public issues. Kennedy promoted the idea of American power restoration in military and economic terms which regressed comparing to the Soviet Union and pointed to the success of Soviet space program. During elections the debates between two candidates were televised for the first time, and Kennedy, as looking nice and handsome man, received bigger support of viewers than Nixon who looked tired and nervous. Thus, these first-time televised debates reinforced the idea of public image importance.
Which groups were represented and how did they vote?
The voting in 1960s elections was marked by the fact of all 50 states voting for the first time, including Hawaii and Alaska which officially joined the states in 1959. John F. Kennedy received 303 electoral votes and 34,227,096 popular votes compared to Richard M. Nixon who won 219 electoral votes and 34,107,646 popular votes.
Use documents to explain who you would have voted for.
I would have voted for John F.Kennedy. First of all, I agree with idea of church separation from the state, and the issue of Catholic president in charge of the country being arguable in 1960s was decently responded by Kennedy in his speech before the Greater-Houston Ministerial Association, who said: "I believe in an America where the separation of church and state is absolute; where no Catholic prelate would tell the President - should he be Catholic - how to act, and no Protestant minister would tell his parishioners for whom to vote." Also I support Kennedy’s intentions to promote country’s development, in his acceptance speech Kennedy said that the country is "on the edge of New Frontier - of the 1960s - a frontier of unknown opportunities and perils - a frontier of unfilled hopes and threats." Thus, Kennedy announced the coming of new era and balance of power shifting; America had to adjust to new realities and couldn’t be late. I would also vote for Kennedy because he makes a positive impression as a person, and by watching first Kennedy-Nixon Debate which took place on 26th of September, 1960 (http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/TNC-172.aspx), I can say that Kennedy has stage presence and self-assurance which are very important features for President, and partially contributed to his victory.
W 4/20 Topic: The Sixties. Who were the major activists and players in the Civil Rights movements?
In 1960s Civil Rights movement took a new form of so called sit-ins spreading all over the country, and black students became the drive force in the movement, an important feature of this period was that not only black students, but also some whites joined the sit-ins. As the movement was growing and included more and more ordinary people, its opposition was growing as well. The forms of fighting against the movement tool violent forms, and organization of movement required the availability of leaders who could be in charge of the movement. One of such leaders was Martin Luther King supported by many black activists. Another popular person fighting for civil rights was Medgar Evers, the secretary of NAACP in Mississippi. There also were female activists in the movement such as Jo Ann Robinson and Ella Baker. Rosa Parks, black woman, who refused to leave her seat in the bus for the white man, also played a big role in the development of civil rights movements and final ban of segregation in public bus transport first in Montgomery, and later all over the country.
What were the major events that impacted these activists and the movement?
The opposition tried to fight against the initiatives in the field of every aspect of life, such as education, public services and transport. A number of certain events had a crucial impact on the movement. One of the important events was so called Freedom Rides of 1961, when Congress of Racial Equality organized bus travels into the Deep South in order to check the compliance with law banning the segregation in public transport. Freedom Rides were highly attacked, and its participants were arrested but achieved their goal. Another major event was the admission of black student, James Meredith, to the University of Mississippi in 1962 according to the court order. At that time Birmingham, Alabama, was the very center of segregation. The leaders of movement in Birmingham invited Martin Luther King to visit the city, and King took a decision to send black children to protest on the streets of Birmingham, when local police applied force against children. The TV broadcasting of events showed the real picture of violence, and event has become the victory of civil rights movement. However, the violence wasn’t stopped, and Birmingham events were followed by the murder of Medgar Evers and bomb explosion in Black Baptist church. In August 1963 a March on Washington, organized by of civil rights, labor, and church organizations, took place; it was a peaceful action of protest and demonstration to the support of Civil Rights Act, where King presented his speech “I have a dream”. The March had a major impact movement and demonstrated the hopes of blacks for federal government, and not the local authorities.
In the field of civil rights Kennedy administration was not as effective as it could be. Despite the fact that he was chosen a president because of his promise for civil rights, he was more concerned with the Cold War and did not consider civil rights as his priority matter of policy. Being afraid to lose the support of South, he didn’t push the civil rights legislation. Initially, Kennedy was not willing to pay much of his personal attention to this issue and tried to shift the responsibility to local authorities and leaders of cities where the violent events of civil rights movement took place. A few years later, after the Birmingham events of 1963, Kennedy changed his views realizing that country cannot name itself free if it follows the policy of racial discrimination, and in his speech he called for the passage of a law banning discrimination in all places of public accommodation. Because of his tragic death he couldn’t see further implementation of this idea. If Kennedy would pay bigger attention and his personal control to the issues of civil rights, many of violent events and deaths of ordinary people could be avoided, but his latest initiatives were huge contribution to civil rights.
