For many years, different tests have been performed on humans or using humans as test subjects. Human testing provides better results as compared to carrying out tests with animals. Humans and animals are by no means exactly identical: There is also the argument that a drug’s reaction in a human’s body is to a certain extent different from the reaction in an animal. The main criticism at this point is that certain people believe that animal testing is not reliable. Following on that criticism is the idea that when conducting tests, since animals are in a strange surroundings, the animals will be under a lot of stress. For that reason, the animals won't act in response to the drugs in the same way when equated to their potential reaction in their natural surroundings. This argument weakens further the validity of animal testing thus, it is better to conduct tests using humans as the subject (Murnaghan 1).
Controlled experiments of human testing, conducted in a setting of a perfect scientific foundation, are compulsory for sound medical practice to get rid of treatments that lack any therapeutic benefits, for instance, bloodletting or Phlebotomy. In medicine, Phlebotomy or bloodletting has been the longest running practice (Douglas 1). Doctors bled patients for every ailment imaginable. They bled for rheumatism and back ache, pneumonia and fevers, headaches and melancholia; and also to treat bone fractures besides other wounds. Nevertheless, not even once was there any proof that bloodletting did any good. Ancient system of medicine were the basis of bloodletting in which blood as well as other bodily fluid were presumed to be "humors" whose correct balance upheld health. Patients who were sick were believed to have an imbalance of their humors, and that bloodletting was believed to restore. The person conducting the procedure would then cut open, using a small fine knife known as a lancet, a vein in the neck, arm, or leg. He or she would then tie off the cut area using a tourniquet while delicately holding the lancet between forefinger and thumb, strike lengthwise or diagonally into the vein, since; a perpendicular cut could break the blood vessel. Then, in measuring bowls they would collect the blood, exquisitely created of fine Venetian glass. (Douglas 2).
Human testing enables one to know their HIV/Aids status. HIV/Aids have proven to be deadly diseases killing millions of people each year, all over the world. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks the CD4 cells or T- cells that generally guard the body against illness and in the end resulting to a weakened immune system. The sooner an individual gets tested, the earlier he or she is able to get treatments and information to assist them manage the condition as well as delaying the onset of Aids supposing he or she test positive for HIV.If the infection is detected earlier, the treatment is more effective and thus, keeping their immune system healthy becomes easier. Consistent Human Immunodeficiency Virus testing will eradicate stigmas that surround the disease, thus, creating more understanding and awareness about this global epidemic. (Health24 2).
Psychological testing as well as psychological assessment is another type of tests conducted on humans. Psychological testing form the basis of how well psychologists understand an individual as well as their behavior. This test is a problem solving procedure used by many professionals for the purpose of trying and determining the essential components of an individual’s mental health or psychological problems, IQ, personality, or some other component. This is a process that also aids to identify not only a person’s weaknesses, but also a person’s strengths. Psychological testing is not a particular test or even a single kind of test. The test incorporates a whole body of lots of research-supported tests as well as procedures of evaluating particular aspects of the psychological makeup of a person. Psychological testing measures the performance of a person at a particular point in time for instance right now. However, psychological tests cannot be used foretell the future or inherent potential (Jane 3).
Cancer is a word used to describe diseases in which abnormal cells uncontrollably divide themselves and are able to attack other tissues. Through the lymph systems and blood, the cancer cells are able to spread to other body. There are more than a hundred different kinds of cancer disease. Most cancers are called after the types of cellsor organ in which they begin to grow from, for example, breast cancer, cervix cancer, colon cancer, bowel cancer. Certain kinds of cancer can be found in advance before the cancer causes symptoms. Testing for cancer or for conditions that may possibly lead to cancer in a person who has no signs is called screening. Screening can assist doctors find as well as treat certain types of cancer on time. Usually, cancer treatment work more efficiently when the disease is discovered during its early stages (Cancer Research UK 3).
Genetic testing is also another type of human testing. Genetic testing is defined as the study of human Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic RNA, proteins chromosomes, and certain metabolites so as to identify heritable disease-related genotypes karyotypes, mutations, or phenotypes intended for clinical purposes. Genes have an effect upon disease and health, as well as human traits and behavior. A genetic test is normally only given out after a physical checkup, a medical history, and the creation of a family pedigree keeping record of the genetic diseases existing in the past three generations, have been carefully considered. This pedigree is mainly significant, because it helps in deciding whether a disorder or disease is inherited and possible to be transmitted to the following generations (U. S. National Library of Medicine 4).
There is also the negative side of human testing. Many atrocities have been done to the humans when conducting human tests. Some of the best well-known examples took place in Nazi Germany. After the war, investigations that were carried out after revealed many atrocities, for instance, studies in which the subjects- and in this case, the humans- were submerged in very freezing water to estimate the time it would take to for a human to die of hypothermia. When these abuses to the humans were discovered it were the source for the Nuremberg trials as well as the growth of the Nuremberg Code in 1949, this was the main international systematization of minimal expectations when performing researches that involved human subjects.This Code contained very important provisions, some of them include: the settings where experiments using human subjects were conducted have to be of a pure scientific foundation and those experiments should only be performed usinghuman subjects who freely agreed to partake the experiments.
Harm imposed to reluctant subjects using the pretense of conducting research has not been solely to the Nazis. The United States, during World War II, carried out medical experiments on individuals who were not competent to consent as well as on human subjects without their knowledge. Prior to the commencement of the Second World War, in 1932, four hundred African American males who had been infected by syphilis were forcefully entered into a study at Tuskegee in Alabama with the planned purpose of documenting the natural progression of the syphilis disease. Even though treatments of some assumed efficiency had existed, these were withheld whereas the study partakers had been coaxed to believe that experimental processes, for instance spinal taps to study cerebrospinal fluid, were intended for therapeutic purpose. During 1950's, there was easy accessibility topenicillin and it was recognized to be extremely effective in countering syphilis, but then again it also was withheld. In 1972, was when the surviving participants were given treatment after when the nature of which the study was carried out came to be publicly was known. This was twenty three years after the Nuremberg Code waspublished. Acknowledgment of problematic studies issued in the social science and medical literature gave rise to the employment of a commission to recognize important principles that had to oversee human subject’s studies. Belmont Report of1979 was the ultimate product of the federal commission. The report outlined the three main ethical principles which at the moment monitor studies using human subjects in the United States.
The research community believes it is very crucial to protect the health of the general public. In many countries it is still compulsory to carry out Toxicology tests. This is done so as to continue fulfilling the requirements of public consumption, usage or exposure of substances. There are many benefits associated with Toxicology testing which include assessing of goods, for instance: Food products, Pesticides, Pharmaceuticals, Additives and Chemicals. However, this test cannot be conducted on humans. Toxicology tests are carried out by pharmaceutical corporations as well as other establishments, for example, animal testing facilities who usually, they are appointed to conduct animal testing for private companies. This type of testing encompasses approximately ten percent of all animal testing processes that take place each year. Thus, it is impossible to conduct human testing for Toxicology testing (Ian 5).
Even though it is important for a person to undergo tests for early detection of cancer or HIV/aids, the risks related with the testing involve the financial, emotional, or social outcomes of the test results. Sometimes people may feel depressed, guilty, anxious, or angryabout their results. In other cases, it generates tension within a family since the results can disclosefactsabout other family members other than the individual who is tested. The person may develop low self-esteem.
The positive aspects of human testing surpass the negative aspects. Developments in human health and well-being at the end of the day depend on research using human subjects. Well controlled studies using human subjects are important to verify any assumptions about normal bodily processes, mechanisms of disease, success of treatment, or behavior. Through human testing medicalexperts have been able to study and find cures of deadly diseases such as cancer and HIV/aids.
Works cited
U. S. National Library of Medicine.What are the risks and limitations of genetic testing?
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Health24.Why you should get tested?Health24.com, 26 January 2009. Web 26 November 2013.
Douglas Starr. Early Practices: Bloodletting.Pbs.org, 12 March 2002. Web 26 November 2013.
Ian Murnaghan. Leading Animal Testing and Research Organizations.aboutanimaltesting.co.uk,
14 August 2010. Web 26 November 2013.
Jane Framingham. TypesofPsychological Testing. Psych Central. 27 November 2011.Web 26
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Cancer Research UK. Screening for cancer.cancerresearchuk.org, 21 February 2013.Web 26
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