The 1967 Supreme Court Case of Loving v. Virginia declared various anti-miscegenation statutes in Virginia and several other states as illegal and unconstitutional and profoundly impacted the legality of interracial relationships. Although the Fourteenth Amendment, especially under the due process and equal protection clauses, protect interracial unions and ensures that everyone across the United States has the right to freely associate, live, and get married to anyone regardless of their color or race. Despite the inclusion of protection clauses in the constitution, interracial relationships were often deemed illegal or discouraged in many states across the United States. The 1967 landmark ruling by the Supreme Court tore down the legal hurdles put in place by these states to prevent such unions. This Supreme Court ruling did not change how society across the United States viewed interracial relationships. It is undeniable that interracial relationships have increased with more people getting comfortable with such unions, mainly due to a shift in societal norms. However, despite many Americans accepting interracial marriages or relationships between different races or ethnicities, interracial couples are treated differently.
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The functionalist perspective perfectly aligns with the issue of interracial couples. The functionalist social perspective views society as a complex system with different parts that must work closely to promote stability and ensure solidarity (Giddens et al., 2021). Functionalism lays significant emphasis on the interconnectedness of society and how the different parts within the social sphere are closely connected. These parts work together to ensure that the society is in a balance or a state of equilibrium. For instance, social institutions such as family are critical in ensuring that this state of equilibrium has been achieved. Functionalism perspective is often associated with terms such as dysfunctional and functional depending on how a particular social institution or event is viewed or aligned with societal norms and values. Similarly, interracial couples were often treated differently due to laws and regulations to promote social norms and values existing at the time. For instance, before the Loving v. Virginia Supreme Court ruling in 1967, interracial relationships and unions were viewed as dysfunctional, thus implementing draconian laws that prevented and discouraged such unions. However, due to societal changes across the United States, interracial relationships can be viewed as functional by functionalists. Despite this change in perspective about interracial couples, their treatment leaves a lot to be desired across various segments of the society in the United States.
The notion of interracial relationships has not been entirely accepted among many family members across the United States. A study conducted at a predominantly white university indicated that although white privilege plays a role in whether they should or should not engage in interracial relations, many white students believe that they would face social consequences from family members and peers (Schoepflin, 2009). It is pretty evident that many people, especially the young generation, do not fear or mind getting into interracial relationships. Still, they are wary of the reaction that they may receive from their family members or peers. The trend indicates that despite accepting interracial relationships, many people would not recommend or encourage their family members or peers to engage in it.
There is a hypocritical view toward interracial relationships. A 2008 Cooperative Congressional Election Study (CCES) found that 29 percent of the white participants did not approve of an interracial relationship, while the majority of the women participants were more likely to approve of interracial relationships for other individuals but not themselves (Herman & Campbell, 2012). Interestingly, the study found that the male participants were willing to engage in an interracial relationship but not bear multiracial children. The results from the CCES suggest that there is a hypocritical view since the majority of the participants indicated a willingness to accept interracial relationships for other people or engage in such a relationship but were not willing to bear any children. Such attitudes towards interracial relationships may be due to the lack of exposure of the participants to people in interracial relationships with children. As highlighted earlier, people in interracial relationships are less likely to display affection, shaping how other people perceive such relationships.
Interracial couples face prejudice. A study found that interracial couples are less likely to exhibit affection towards each other in public or private compared to interracial couples. The fear to display affection, whether in public or private, is due to being judged because of one’s race (Vaquera & Kao, 2005). Unfortunately, interracial couples continue to experience or get treated differently due to the continued existence of racism within our society on a deeper level. In a society where people are free to judge, it is common to find that people often harbor negative sentiments against interracial couples due to their perception of a particular race. Under these circumstances, these people adopt the functionalist view that interracial couples are dysfunctional. In a society that has a low view or disapproves of interracial relationships, the partners in such a union play a critical role in ensuring that they support each other while maintaining high levels of empathy.
Over the years, interracial couples have faced hate crimes either physically or on online platforms such as social media. In most cases, the perpetrators of hate crimes will act based on the victim’s color, race, religion, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, or identity. For instance, in 2019, a Louisiana man was arrested and charged with a hate crime, aggravated second-degree battery, damage to property, and assault after he accelerated his vehicle toward an interracial couple at a convenience store’s parking lot in New Orleans, intending to injure the couple. The perpetrator of this heinous crime claimed that he was disturbed and upset about the interracial relationship. Similarly, an interracial teen couple faces hate crime in North Carolina. It reminded us that younger interracial couples also face difficulties brought about by persons who judge them based on their color, gender, or race. Other incidences demonstrate that interracial couples undergo various forms of hate crimes and violence, such as stabbing a 66-year-old African American man in New York by a white man who claimed that he was on a practice run to stop interracial relationships across the United States.
The media plays a crucial role in how interracial couples are portrayed. It has been found that minority groups and interracial couples are often underrepresented and displayed inaccurate and skewed (Doubenmier, 2014). The social cognitive theory indicates that people will tend to learn about something based on observations of their social settings or social experiences. With a closer look at how the media portrays interracial couples, one would notice that the presentation will often be skewed or biased compared to intra-racial couples. In most shows, interracial couples are overwhelmingly misrepresented as a part of the lower class and often associated with crime news. The form of representation in the media shapes the public perception of interracial relationships.
Due to discrimination, interracial couples face economic inequality. Based on the marital resource model, married people tend to derive material benefits from the union, such as economies of scale, division of labor, and the ability to pool resources or wealth (Liu & Reczek, 2012). The material benefits provide the couples with economic assistance when they face economic hardship. Furthermore, intra-racial couples have a support system from extended family members, which promotes social integration. However, the argument cannot be said about interracial couples, where an individual from a minority race or ethnicity is highly unlikely to be financially stable, which affects the couple’s economic well-being. Similarly, due to the high rates of disapproval among family members and peers or lack of support system, interracial couples will endure prolonged and more arduous economic hardships.
Interracial couples are still marginalized in the United States despite the social progress made over the years. Fifty-five years since the Supreme Court ruling on the Loving v. Virginia case, which declared anti-miscegenation laws illegal and unconstitutional. Since this period, the number of interracial marriages drastically increased, suggesting that such unions were widely accepted across the United States. However, interracial couples or partners in such partnerships are often marginalized, especially when one of the partners has been marginalized or is a member of the marginalized groups. The other partner who has not experienced marginalization is highly likely to be affected by their partner’s experience.
Interracial couples’ health issues, especially mental health, are often ignored by society. In the past few years, incidences across the United States have brought the debate on mental problems to the fore of public discourse. Based on various studies, cohesive social relationships have provided essential benefits that promote one’s mental health, physical health, and longevity (Umberson & Montez, 2010). The mental health debate and potential solutions to this health problem became a news fixture during the COVID-19 pandemic. The high isolation levels are due to the federal and state governments’ rules and regulations or protocols. As pointed out earlier, due to the high disapproval levels of family members and friends, interracial couples lack a critical support system that enables social integration and acceptance. The lack of a support system from close friends and family members will result in further social isolation, which escalates the social isolation caused by the pandemic. In the long run, interracial couples may develop mental health issues due to this isolation.
In cases where interracial couples have children from previous relationships, the partners may experience hatred from their stepchildren or stepfamilies. The experiences are likely to happen in cases where the interracial relationship is not intercultural. Interracial relationships can be racial, cultural, or both. Intercultural is a situation where the partners come from different cultural backgrounds. For instance, a union between an American-born Chinese and a Taiwanese-born Chinese is considered an intercultural relationship. The cultural differences that emerge from such unions may make it difficult for the couple’s stepchildren and extended families to accept the union. Considering children or extended family members will not have a significant role in selecting a partner of the same cultural background or race, hatred towards the other partner in the interracial relationship may emerge. In some incidences, a parent may experience hatred from their children or extended family members.
Despite the constitution insisting on fairness and equality, partners in interracial relationships are mistreated when pursuing legal issues. In several studies into the attribution of guilt among partners in interracial relationships in domestic violence cases, it has been found that blame is likely to be apportioned to the partner from a minority group (Harrison & Esqueda, 2000). For instance, people are more likely to blame an African-American man than a Caucasian-American male in cases where domestic violence has occurred in an interracial relationship. It implies that persons from minority groups in interracial relationships are unlikely to receive fair and equal legal services.
In 1967 when the Supreme Court declared the anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional, the drastic change and acceptance of interracial relationships were unprecedented. Although more people have accepted interracial relationships, the same people or other individuals treat interracial couples differently. The interconnectedness of the society, especially on issues that touch on one’s relationship, is a testament to the functionalist perspective, which emphasizes how different parts of the society ought to work together to maintain a state of equilibrium. However, social equilibrium is not attained because interracial couples are treated differently. For instance, interracial couples are not entirely accepted among their family members and peers, constantly face hypocritical views, prejudice within the society, experience hate crimes, are misrepresented and underrepresented in the media, are marginalized, experience economic inequality, and face increased mental health-related issues. Interracial couples will also face unfair and unequal treatment when receiving legal representation or justice, and they are likely to experience hate from stepchildren and stepfamilies. These factors indicate that interracial couples are treated differently compared to intra-racial couples.
References
Doubenmier, D.R. (2014). The portrayal of interracial relationships on television programs for teens. Pepperdine Journal of Communication Research, 2(2), 1-23. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=pjcr
Giddens, A., Duneier, M., Appelbaum, R.P., & Carr, D. (2021). Essentials of sociology. W.W. Norton & Company.
Harrison, L.A., & Esqueda, C.W. (2000). Effects of race and victim drinking on domestic violence attributions. Sex Roles, 42(1), 1043-1057.
Herman, M.R., & Campbell, M.E. (2012). I wouldn’t, but you can: Attitudes toward interracial relationships. Social Science Research, 41(2), 343-358. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.11.007
Liu, H., & Reczek, C. (2012). Cohabitation and U.S. adult mortality: An examination by gender and race. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(4), 794-811.
Schoepflin, T. (2009). Perspectives of interracial dating at a predominantly white university. Mid-South Sociological Association, 29(3), 346-370. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170902761982
Umberson, D., & Montez, J.K. (2010). Social relationships and health: A flashpoint for health policy. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), 554-566.
Vaquera, E., & Kao, G. (2005). Private and public displays of affection among interracial and intra-racial adolescent couples. Social Science Quarterly, 86(2), 484-508. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00314.x
Annotated Bibliography
Doubenmier, D. R. (2014). The portrayal of interracial relationships on television programs for teens. Pepperdine Journal of Communication Research, 2(2), 1-23. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=pjcr
The article explores how minority groups and interracial relationships are portrayed on prime-time television. Based on the author’s observation, minority groups were underrepresented compared to their standing in the population. It also established that the presentation of interracial relationships is inaccurate and skewed to suit a particular narrative. It translated to little or lack of interracial or minority relationships on shows. Ironically, many participants in the study viewed interracial relationships as honest and unaffectionate.
Harrison, L. A., & Esqueda, C. W. (2000). Effects of race and victim drinking on domestic violence attributions. Sex Roles, 42(1), 1043-1057. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007040701889
The article seeks to establish the impact of race and victim drinking on domestic violence attributions, especially when the victims are seeking legal services or justice. The study found that blame was more likely to be assigned to persons of color or minority groups even when they are the victim, especially in cases where they had been partaking in alcohol. The findings also found that minorities in interracial relationships, especially African-American women, are at a greater risk of not receiving the required justice or legal services from relevant bodies.
Herman, M. R., & Campbell, M. E. (2012). I wouldn’t, but you can: Attitudes toward interracial relationships. Social Science Research, 41(2), 343-358. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.11.007
The article delves into the attitudes of Americans towards interracial relationships. It analyzes a 2008 Congressional Election Study (CCES), which established that 29 percent of the white respondents disapproved of any interracial relationship. It also established that women participants were likely to approve of interracial relationships with other people but not for themselves, while male participants were open to interracial relationships.
Vaquera, E., & Kao, G. (2005). Private and public displays of affection among interracial and intra-racial adolescent couples. Social Science Quarterly, 86(2), 484-508. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00314.x
The article seeks to establish the variation between affection displays of intra-racial and interracial couples. The study’s subjects were adolescents, and it relied on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) for data on adolescents across the United States. The results indicated that adolescents in interracial relationships were less likely to display affection in public than intra-racial couples. This high possibility of social isolation played a vital role in the limited expression of affection.
