Islamic History Critical Thinking Sample

- What was the hijrah (emirgration/migration) that Muhammad and his followers made, and why was this such an important event in Muslim history?
The “Hijrah” – is the Prophet Muhammad's and his supporters` flight from Mecca to Medina, where the first Muslim community was founded in 622 AD. Basically, “hijrah” in Arabic language has got a meaning of relocation from one place to another. As a religious term, the word "hijra" is used in cases of relocation of believers who are oppressed in their homeland and deprived of freedom of religion, to other regions where there are more favorable conditions for the free service of God.
In 622 the idolaters in Mecca decided to kill Muhammad because of his rapidly growing popularity among masses, and he was forced to leave Mecca saving his life. With his followers he moved to Medina, which had already sheltered a significant part of the Muslims in its walls. This event, the Hijrah, can be considered as the beginning of the first Islamic state. The period before the Hijrah is called Jahiliyyah and means the pre-Islamic period as a whole.
Moreover, with the Hijra of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina a new and crucial historical period in the life of the Muslim community has started. And the year 622 AD, year of Muhammad`s Hijra, is the departure point of chronology of the Muslim calendar. The year of Hijra was the first year of the Islamic lunar calendar (lunar Hijra). Therefore, the calendar in Muslim countries is called Hijra calendar.
- What was the role of the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire, and why were they eliminated by Mahmud II?
Janissaries with Sipahi and Akinci (cavalry) formed the basis of the troops in the Ottoman Empire. They were a part of the regiments of the Sultan's personal guard, which mostly consisted of slaves and prisoners. Janissaries police forces have also performed punitive functions in the state of the Ottoman Empire. Taking into account the constantly growing expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the XIV century, the need to reorganize the army, to create new regular well-disciplined troops emerged as well. The Janissaries infantry forces, exclusively consisting of Christian 12-16 years old youths, were established by Sultan Murad I in 1365.
Mahmud II was the ruler who began to reformate the army following principles of organizing European armies and hiring European artillerymen. As usual, the Janissaries rebelled, but were driven off to the barracks in Constantinople and Thessaloniki where major Janissaries forces were suppressed. The instigators of the rebellion were executed, their property was confiscated by the Sultan, and the young Janissaries were expelled or arrested. All these things, as well as the incurred losses in the fighting, led to a decline of the Janissaries Corps. Survived Janissaries engaged in craft and trade.
- Briefly describe the rise of Salah al-Din
Salah al-Din (better known as Saladin (ca. 1138 — 1193)) was the great Muslim leader, a talented military leader, and a Sultan of Egypt and Syria, a founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, which in its heyday ruled over Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Hijaz and Yemen.
In 1164 Salah al-Din, already the right hand of the commander Nur ed-Din, participated in the liberation of Egypt from the Crusaders. Later after the death of the latter, Salah al-Din personally led the Arab army in fights against the Crusaders and their states on the Holy Land. Together with the title of Commander of the Muslim army, Salah ad-Din gained power over Egypt conquered by the Arabs, becoming the sovereign sultan of Egypt – the largest state in the Arab world of those years. In 1174, he founded the Ayyubid dynasty. During twelve years of continuous military campaigns Sultan Salah al-Din conquered Syria and Iraq, and became a recognized leader in the Muslim world. Now the states founded by the Crusaders in the Middle East from all sides were surrounded by the possessions of the Egyptian sultan, who vowed to expel the infidels and declared them a holy war.
Following glorious fights against the Crusaders, Sultan Salah al-Din besieged Jerusalem in September 1187 and captured it within a couple of next months. Salah ad-Din`s successful actions reduced to a minimum expansions of the European chivalry during the Second Crusade, whereby provoked a new Crusade – the third one. The decisive battle between the armies of the Crusaders and of the Sultan of Egypt was held in September 1191 at Arsuf, at which Sultan`s forces managed to win. In a year Salah al-Din and the English King Richard the Lionheart concluded a truce for three years. In fact, this agreement was a peace treaty that stayed in force for many years after Salah al-Din`s death in 1193.
- Summarize the achievements of Umayyads in Spain.
The Umayyad Caliphate (756-1031) in Spain with its capital in Cordoba was founded by the only surviving member of the Umayyad dynasty after the massacre that followed its fall in 750 – Abd ar-Rahman I. In 756 he obeyed most of the Muslim Spain and troops managed to successfully repel the invasion of the Abbasid forces. His successors hold at the throne of Cordoba for 2 ½ centuries, and had to fight with varying success against constantly strengthening Christians at the north and against various separatist movements in their own state.
Abd ar-Rahman III was the greatest emperor of the dynasty above mentioned. He not only enjoyed unlimited influence over his own subjects and kept in fear Christian Kings of Leon, Castile and Navarre, but also freed the Moorish Spain from the main danger – from the invasion of the African tribes, and maintained his power on the Mediterranean Sea by means of the powerful fleet. After his death, there was no more such a great Umayyad, who could continue the work started.
Internal strife and feudal disunity led to the disintegration of the caliphate and the emergence of a number of specific political entities. At the beginning of the XI century, the Moorish Spain became an arena of struggle between parties and adventurers; there was a number of small dynasties, known under the name of demesnial rulers. Most of them were eliminated by most outstanding representatives of the dynasty, namely Seville Abbadid dynasty. Abbadid Spanish Moors were the leaders in the fight against the movement of Christians, and finally, they became unilateral sovereign rulers of Spanish territory.
- Explain the reasons why during the latter part of the Nineteenth Century and early part of the Twentieth Century the peoples of the Arab world, Turkey, and Persia began to develop feelings of nationalism.
Nationalism as a concept is contrary to the operational and ideological base of Islam, according to which the common borders of mankind must be a nation of believers ("Umma of Islam"). In Islam a universal principle dominates, but not as single-nationalist group concept. Islam in the Arab world calls for universal human unity, creating a unity on the basis of a common faith in the Islamic divine order. It recognizes that humanity is composed of different groups, however it is trying to iron out these differences, to create an integration and harmony between them. Islam, therefore, denies the legitimacy of political separation.
Ideas of national movements in Egypt, Turkey, Persia and in the rest of the Arab world were the result of modernization during the late XIX-early XX centuries. For example, Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) was pursuing a policy of returning to the traditional values ​​of Islam as a source of legitimation of his rule and of the existence of the Ottoman Empire. However, 1909 Revolution of “Young Turks” overthrew the Sultan. The rule of the “Young Turks” till 1918 marked a call for political progress and modernization of the empire, based on liberal values ​​and modernist and Islamic teachings.
In the largest manner the Western world itself influenced national self-identification of those peoples. That was the beginning of the era of information when news was circulating all over the world with larger speed than used to be half of the century before. In news active youth of the Arab world got to know what Western democracies were experiencing, what tendencies were in the air those days. Those years education became much easier to receive for Arab students abroad in European colleges that led to the enlightenment of great masses of people able to strive to self-determination. Those active “rebels” learned that individuals had inalienable rights and freedoms, that people could be a part of political societies based on principles of language, culture differences, and common history.
- What is political Zionism, what are its origins as a political movement focused on returning to Israel, and what three events saved it?
Political Zionism – is a political movement which goal is unification and rebirth of the Jewish people in its historic homeland – Israel (Eretz Yisrael), as well as an ideological concept, on which the movement of political Zionism is based. The word "Zionism" is derived from the place name Zion, and the Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael) is often called the "daughter of Zion", and the Jewish people – the “sons of Zion”. From the times of the Babylonian captivity Zion became a symbol of the lost homeland for the Jewish people in the Diaspora. Among the Jews living in the Diaspora, there was always a strong common desire to return to Zion. Zion, the Land of Israel and Jerusalem were present in the Jewish culture and traditional rituals as symbols of the country.
However, by the end of the XIX century Zionism was often meant as practical activities aimed at creating a Jewish agricultural settlements in Eretz Yisrael, and one of the first theorist of the political Zionism, Theodor Herzl, used this word in this sense as well. Only after the First Zionist Congress and the creation of the Zionist Organization the term acquired a modern meaning.
Three events that saved Zionism from fading away were, in my opinion, the following: the establishment of The World Zionist Organization at the first Zionist World Congress in 1897 with the aim of returning Jews to their historic homeland in Israel. Without this Organization basic principles of Zionism could never have been explained so quickly and in such a comprehensive and noteworthy manner to the whole mankind and to the mighty nations of those times; another event, for sure, was the Balfour Declaration that was issued by the British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour in 1917 and declared that Britain was not against the establishment in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people. Without a position of Great Britain, one of the most important countries in the world affairs of those years, further support of Israel by other nations would not be possible, as well as the third event that saved Zionism; the adoption of a plan for the partition of Palestine by the UN General Assembly which found its birth in UN Resolution of 1947 gave rise to Israel as a nation and prolonged for the unknown period of time a life of political movement of Zionism.
- What are some of the issues involved for Muslim women trying to balance living a good Muslim life and accommodating modernization, and what actions are they taking as a result?
The position of women in Islam and co-related issues – are the traditional points of criticism of social organization of Muslim society. Islamic law (Sharia) provides for significant differences of roles of men and women in sphere of their rights and duties. The differences are expressed in matters of marriage, divorce, legal status, clothing and education. However, in the world we know today, where human rights and fundamental freedoms are number one in everyday news, where human life is a greatest value, regardless of its sex, provisions of Sharia seem to be inhuman and those offending honor of Muslim women.
Muslim women are often restricted from entering Islamic schools, driving car, free communication about family matters with others and from other things that are common in the life of everyone in the democratic country nowadays. We witness that situation when large part of today scientific progress and simple happiness of life are completely or partially unavailable to women in Islam. The reason of it – is a multi-century traditions, norms of Islam law and peculiarities of religion of Islam.
As a result, those women wishing to live a full-fledged life are simply deprived of such a possibility and there is nothing left for them but to follow strict rules of Sharia. Or escape such a fortune by leaving the society that is common to them in return for inability to get back to the ancestor`s land and for an absence of chance to be forgiven by the Islam community. Still, nowadays some Islam countries, that used to practice laws of Sharia towards women at the greatest extend, are simplifying those rules giving air to those women wishing to experience life their Muslim husbands do.
8. What is UN Resolution 242, what conflict did it seek to resolve, and how is it interpreted by the opposing sided?
UN Security Council Resolution 242 – is the resolution of the UN Security Council on the results of the Six Day War that was adopted unanimously by the Security Council at the November 22, 1967 meeting that thought to resolve the military conflict between Israel and Arab states-in-war: Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan.
In its Resolution of the UN Security Council demanded the withdrawal of the Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the conflict, called for the immediate cessation of all hostile declarations and of the state of war, it made a call for the recognition of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of all states in the region, for recognition of the right of each State to live in peace with secured and recognized boundaries free from threats and violence.
Israel accepted a resolution, and treats it as a call for withdrawal from the territories within the framework of peace negotiations, including full diplomatic recognition. The Arab position is that the resolution calls on Israel to withdraw from all the territories it occupied during the Six Day War. This call was put forward as a precondition for peace talks. However, as we see, Israel has already withdrawn its forces from the Sinai Peninsula, but the Arab-Israeli dispute is still in limbo.
1. Describe Persia, Rome, and Mecca during the pre-Islamic era.
Muslim conquests began during the life of the founder of Islam, Muhammad. He founded an Islamic state in Arabia, which captured much territory outside Arabia during a succeeding century. Under pressure from the Arab conquerors the huge Sasanian Empire lost its control in Iran. Under the blows of Arabs fell the Kingdom of the Visigoths, Greek Byzantine Empire lost Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Crete, Malta, Sicily, Rhodes, and the Holy Land.
The Arab conquest of the Sasanian Iran (Persia) took place in the middle of VII century AD and put an end to the Sassanid power in the year 644. This conquest besides led to a significant decrease in the influence of the so-called Big Iranian Zoroastrian religion and its almost complete disappearance afterwards. Before the Arab conquests Persian dynasty of rulers ruled the Sassanid Empire from 224 to 651. From the beginning of the VI century there were wars with the Byzantine Empire, which took place with varying degrees of success. The longstanding war with Byzantium led to the depletion of material resources of the state. This, as well as a sharp increase in taxes, undermined the political and economic power of the state Sassanid and led to a quick fall of the Sassanid dynasty by the Arab swords.
Before analyzing Islamic Mecca I would like to start with the well-known fact that Mecca was a place of pilgrimage long before the advent of Islam, the pagan pilgrims come to their temple at the territory of this ancient city and drank from the well Zamzam – nowadays – the holiest place of Islam. At the territory of the Arabia there was no single state before the arrival of Muhammad to Mecca. The territory of the Peninsula was apportioned between local tribes who exercised mostly paganism. Because of the extremely convenient geographical location, Mecca was a transit point of the merchant path that linked Africa, Far East with Byzantium and with the help of which spices, leather, drugs, cloth, slaves, weapons, cereals and wine were constantly sold.
2. Discuss Shi’I Islam. What are its origins and how does it differ from Sunni Islam?
Shia Islam – is a branch of Islam, bringing together the various communities that have recognized Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants as the only legitimate heirs and spiritual successors of the Prophet Muhammad.
During the first century of existence of Islam, a single Muslim community (umma) separated into three branches – Sunni, Shia and Kharijism. The main criterion, which became the impetus for the split of the Islamic religion, originally lay in the question of the character and nature of the supreme power in the Muslim state.
In the course of bitter struggle for power that emerged in the caliphate at the beginning of the second half of the VII century between the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad – Ali ibn Abu Talib and his opponents in the face of the Umayyad, emerged a religious and political group of advocates of the rights of Ali and his children. This group had become the nucleus of the movement, which later split the Muslim community into two main parts – the Sunnis and the Shiites. The split has gone beyond the dynastic rivalries within the Caliphate, and had a tremendous impact on the fate of the Muslim world
Like all Muslims, the Shiites believe in messiah mission of the Prophet Muhammad. A distinctive feature of the Shiites is the belief that the leadership of the Muslim community should belong to the imams – appointed by God that are elected persons from the progeny of the Prophet. The Shiites relate to imams Ali ibn Abu Talib and his descendants of Muhammad's daughter Fatima, but not elected officials – the caliphs. According to the Shiites, the election of a Leader – the election of the Imam of the Muslim community is like the election of the prophets and is the prerogative of God.
3. What were the problems that needed to be resolved in the Middle East in the aftermath of World War One, what attempts were made to resolve them, and what were the outcomes?
The main problem that remained unsolved after the World War One was the situation with a huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire that strived for independence. The defeat of the Middle East Empire in the mentioned war provided great chance to the Allies, winners at the war, and arbitrators of world order for succeeding years, to solve disputes of decreasing influence of Ottoman Empire in the world and self-determination of nations constituting defeated Empire.
After the occupation of Istanbul by British and French troops in November 1918, the Government of the Ottoman Empire finally collapsed and signed the Treaty of Sevres in 1920. Later in 1923 it was changed to the new Treaty of Lausanne due to the reason of the Turkish War of Independence that broke out suddenly and invalidity of the previous treaty.
Division of the territory of the Ottoman Empire led to the creation of the modern Arab world and Turkey. The League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon, and the United Kingdom – mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine (which was subsequently divided into two regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Possession of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became part of what is today Saudi Arabia and Yemen. In the 1920s and 1930s, Iraq, Syria, and Egypt became de facto independent, although the British and the French formally didn`t leave the region before the end of the Second World War.
4. What is your text author’s assessment of the influence that Neoconservatives and Evangelical Christians (Christian Zionists) have had in shaping American Middle East Policy, and do you agree or disagree?
I strongly believe that Neoconservatives, as well as Christian Zionists, have been in all institutions pertaining American foreign (domestic – is not an exception) policy for more than a century already, but most noticeable was the period of their reign starting from the end of the World War Two. Americans since the only emergence of a question of independence of Israel have been vivid supporters of this nation and extreme neutralists and, let me say, sometimes oppressors of the rights of Palestinian nation to self-determination. The USA is has been maintaining more than just friendly and fruitful relations with Israel for decades already and their bilateral relations were never marked with any flaws. For sure, not the last role in such a status quo Christian Zionists and Neoconservatives play. And play efficiently.
The Neoconservatives are considering a traditional Muslim way of life in the Middle East to be not only a threat to Israel, but also to be an obstacle on the path of virtue they undertake in this region. The region of the Middle East for a long time has been within primary sphere of interests of the American Department of State and to lose it is not in plans of the highest management of the American state. For sure, Israel is a true ally the US can always rely on. And to that end it will make everything possible to suffice its requests – it will export high-end armaments, it will veto resolution over Palestinian preferences, and it will allocate enormous loans to the outpost of its interests in the region of Middle East.
Guided by the Neoconservatives circles the American leadership will make everything possible to curb the region of Middle East within the sphere of its semi-monopolistic interest. Explicit evidences to this thesis we were able to spectate during American campaign in Iraq, Afghanistan, earlier – in Kuwait. The similar to Iraqi scenario is nowadays happening in Syria, in a country in which the US is not against establishing its influence and in a pair of years to harvest benefits.