Introduction
Japan is reported to have the world’s third largest economy, which gives it an essential role in the global community. This calls for the need to understand the Japanese people’s self-concept and how they hold themselves up as individuals and as members of the society. It has been widely established that self-concept is far from being a static perception, rather it is a changeable system which is generally a result of an individual’s social relationships. It is observed that people normally hold a different perception of themselves as individuals, and as a social group member. Consequently, the Japanese people prided themselves on having attained a considerable economic success in the past few years, which makes it important to study how they perceived themselves in relation to the society. This paper aims to provide a review of previous studies conducted on how the Japanese people’s perception of themselves and as a member of the larger society.
The Japanese Self-concept as an Individual
A study was conducted by Lerner et al (n.p) about the self-concepts of Japanese male and female young people. Their study focused on determining cultural differences in self-concept of the Japanese participants given a specific situation. The research involved the participation of Japanese adolescents who were enrolled in the 7th through the senior year in college. The study was aimed at gaining an insight on the self-concept of the Japanese young people through a cross-sectional study. Consequently, the result of this research was compared to the data set of similar study conducted on American adolescents. It was found that the Japanese adolescents tend to have a less favorable concept of themselves, nevertheless, the researchers pointed out that the lower self-esteem may not relate to cultural factors and that the result is inconclusive so far.
In another attempt to study the self-concept of the Japanese people, it was found that compared to their western counterparts, they tend to have a lower self-esteem (Tafarodi et al, 154). This is another form of comparison study where participants who came from a European background and a group of students from a university in Japan were tested using questions that are both related and unrelated to self-concept. In their findings reported in the article entitled The Reporting of Self-Esteem in Japan and Canada (Tafarodi et al, 161 ), the result corroborates the result of other studies showing that the Japanese have lower self-esteem compared to westerners.
The result of two previous research was validated in another study conducted by Kanagwa, Cross and Markus. Their research focused on the impact of culture on self-perception, and it was hypothesized that the Japanese respondents will likely demonstrate a higher level of negativity in their self-concept. Further, Kanagwa et al (91) suggested that the Japanese’s negative self-concept is a product of socio-cultural interaction. However, Kanagwa et al (91) reasoned that the negative self-concept which is a result of self-criticism is not taken as a manifestation of low-self esteem as described by other researchers. That is, the negative self-concept is considered as part of the Japanese culture which demonstrates a self-effacing attitude, but is also taken as an opportunity for self-improvement. This was referred to by the researchers as the cultural variation in reference to the conceptual self (Kanagwa et al, 91). In this study, the American responded based on the typical American household upbringing, where they were brought up being focused on their uniqueness and the positive things about them. On the other hand, the Japanese people are generally brought up based on a self-critical orientation. As a result, they are likely to resort in self-effacing tendencies which can be interpreted by the westerners as a manifestation of low self-esteem.
In the article entitled Genetic and Environmental Influences on Self-esteem in a Japanese Twin Sample, the authors conducted a research that aims to examine the impact of genetic factors in self-esteem (Kamakura et al, (n.p). Based on the results of this research, it was found that hereditary elements contribute moderately to self-esteem differences among the Japanese participants. The researchers claimed that the result of their studies is consistent with the result of another study in the west, showing that self-esteem can be moderately attributed to genetic factors. Further, in this study, it was concluded that the moderate impact of hereditary factors in self-esteem is almost identical between the Japanese and the westerners. In this regard, Kamakura et al (n.p), suggested that cultural background does not have anything to do with self-esteem but has a similar attribution with that of other personality traits or attitudes. As pointed out in the same study, personality traits are heritable for about 40 to 50 percent of the time, and the variance is eventually explained by environmental factors. In this regard, self-esteem can be considered as a personality train or attitude that is highly affected by genetics. Nevertheless, this study did not specifically determine the genes that could possibly have an impact on self-esteem.
The Japanese Self-Concept in the Global Setting
In three of the four studies reviewed above, it was indicated that the Japanese people tend to have a negative or low self-concept about themselves. However, in one of the articles reviewed, the authors pointed out that the result is still favorable when interpreted based on the Japanese culture. This is because, despite the globalization, the culture of the Japanese people is way different from the westerners, which makes the result of the study likely to be different when taken within the specific cultural context. Moreover, the research on the impact of heredity contradicts the idea about the cultural influence on self-concept. It was argued that low self-concept is likely an impact of hereditary factors, just as behaviors are affected by genetic elements.
Critical Evaluation
The differing result of the studies presented above leads to supposition that most of their results are inconclusive. The inconclusive propensity of these studies is attributed to the likelihood that the participants in the study misrepresented their true feelings, behaviors and thoughts while answering the surveys. The Japanese people tend to have that self-effacing attitude, and this could have a considerable impact on how they assess themselves. For instance, instead of the typical positive evaluation that is common among the Americans, a Japanese is likely to focus on self-criticism.
Japan has a collective culture, thus the higher tendency among the member of its population to be concerned about how to make themselves fit in the larger society. The feeling of importance or self-worth among the Japanese people are not focused on having a positive evaluation of self. Rather, their focus is more on indulging in self-criticism, which is a positive aspect that helps promote the achievement of a harmonious social organization. This was specifically pointed out by Schmitt and Allik (624), where they argued “that single-item measures of self-esteem have been shown to be reliable within one culture”. A research that was developed based on the study of a specific culture, should not be used to gauge another because of its tendency to deviate from the true results. What Schmitt and Allik (625) wants to emphasize is that there is no ‘one-size-fits all’ study that can be used to conduct an experiment on self concept. For example, a study on self-esteem that was developed for the westerners should not be used to measure the self-esteem of a population of another state.
Several research showed that the Japanese people are likely to demonstrate self-critical propensities, which is highly in contrast to their western counterparts. The Japanese have this tendency to assess themselves in a less positive way. They are specifically prone to attributing letdowns to insufficient skills or ability, while they attribute success to instances of good luck and easier nature of work. Moreover, it is also ingrained in the Japanse culture to readily accept even the negative, but self-relevant information, which is an attribute that is largely in contrast from the western perspective.
The difference between the Japanese from the westerners during self-assessment depicted in an experiment conducted by Heine et al (71). This experimentation involved the participation of Japanese and Canadian students who were requested to answer a series of questions that related to their cognitive capacity test. After the test, they were given a feedback on their score as well as a a fellow classmate’s marks on a specific item. The participants were convinced to the certainty that they had done well compared to their classmates, while there are others who were made to believe that they performed worse than the others. Accordingly, the participants were mandated to assess whether they think they did better at taking the test than their classmates.
It was an easy task for the Canadian students to respond quickly with their decision, and were more confident with their judgement when they were made to believe that they did well than the others. On the other hand, the Japanse students took some time before they made their decisions, and that they appeared more confident when they were made to believe that they performed worse than their classmates. In this case, Heine et al (76) explained that the result of these findings is representative of the Canadian’s tendencies for self-enhancement and self-criticism among the Japanese.
In critically discussing the result of the research concerning low self-esteem of the Japanese people, it would be best to describe this first term. This word is referred to as one’s confidence and faith in one’s abilities, and it was during the 20th century when it became a popular concept. The people can readily ask and answer question about their self-esteem without having to go through a considerable measure. Recent research revealed the importance of having a high self-esteem, many of which have shown the possible, and desirable consequences of having a high level of self-esteem.
Having a high self-esteem is considered as a sign of emotional stability and good mental health. However, the low score of Japanese people in the measurement of their self-esteem does not mean that they are not emotionally and mentally healthy. What this implies is that the research that are designed and conducted for people in the western world, is not applicable in Japan because of the stark difference in tradition ad cultural upbringing. It is not plausible to conclude that a large number of the Japanese people are not mentally stable by just looking at the result of studies which were designed for the westerners.
The most likely reason for the low self-esteem of the Japanese is the possibility that the tests or measurements used were not applicable within the non-western cultural context. That is, it should not be discounted that self-esteem can come in different forms, and dissimilar cultures may have a different perception of this concept. For example, in most Asian countries, including Japan, modesty is highly appreciated, considering that it is one among the most important virtue. In a study conducted by Brown (3), in both Japanese and non-Japanese participants, it was found that most of those who demonstrated a high level of modesty tend to have a lower level of self-esteem. Thus, the stark difference between western and Japanse participants in terms of their self-esteem can be attributed to dissimilarities in culture.
Another difference between the westerners and the Japanese people is that the former tend to favor self-enhancement, while the latter are favored self-criticism. The westerners were taught to have a high regard for themselves. They should always be accepting of any positive comments which express that they are better than other people. On the other hand, the Japanese are typically encouraged to shun from self-enhancement, but should endeavor to look for criticisms in their attitude and overall personality. It is typical in the Japanese culture to encourage self-criticisms and people are most welcome to give reproaches towards another. This is generally perceived positively in the Japanese cultural context, since it is supposed as an opportunity for improvement.
Further research should be conducted in order to know the best way to design the surveys and research to test self-concept or self-esteem of people from diverse regions. It is suggested that the development of a test to measure self-esteem should include the consideration that self-esteem is defined as having a positive attribute. For example, instead of focusing on the aspect that aims to measure the level of self-esteem, it is suggested that participants are encouraged to reveal their good qualities. The ability to enumerate positive qualities can bridge the gap between the western and Japanese participants in relation to the result of self-esteem tests.
The Japanese people hold a positive view of themselves, but this is not apparent when tested through the use of self-esteem measures that are designed for Americans or Europeans. However, this is not to say that Japanese do not hold a strong view of themselves because they do. However, the culture of self-effacement and modesty generally prevent them from openly expressing their positive traits. Moreover, in contrast to the westerners, the Japanese were generally brought up with the idea that they are not better than other people.
The culture and societies around the world tend to mold their members differently. However, the cultural variance should become a hindrance in understanding others, and in creating a better relationship. In order to eliminate the research discrepancies associated with conducting a research in s different regional setting, it is important to be familiar with the cultural and traditional context that might affect the result of the study.
Conclusion
The majority of previous research concerning the Japanese self-concept showed negative results, indicating that the Japanese people tend to have a lower self-esteem compared to westerners. However, a closer examination showed that the discrepancy is attributed to missing important elements in conducting the research. It should be noted that while the Americans or Europeans are generally encouraged towards self-enhancement, the Japanese are too modest to want to personally call attention to themselves. While they too have positive qualities, the inherent modesty of the Japanese people is preventing them from engaging in promoting themselves.
As a means to minimize the discrepancy of research results, scholars must come up with a system of research that can be applied to all cultures. The survey or test must be designed to capture the needed information without having to be biased towards a specific region. This can be done through the consideration and understanding the culture of one country, which can in turn result in a more harmonious relationship among people from different regions.
Works Cited
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