Introduction
If a job is well-designed, it may foster employee well-being and engagement, and therefore contribute to work performance that leads to customer satisfaction (Bakker et al., 190). Job design provides a description of the way “jobs, tasks, and roles are structured, enacted, and modified and what the impact of these structures, enactments, modifications, are on the individual, group, and organizational outcomes” (Grant et al., 318). For a period spanning over half a century, job design theories have played a significant role in guiding scholars and practitioners to offer descriptions, explanations, and effect changes in the work experiences and behaviors of employees. Job design is considered to be a top-down procedure since companies generate jobs and undertake to select people based on their abilities, skills, and knowledge to fill the created positions. As soon as there is an indication of reducing employee experiences, such as work engagement, and behaviors including work performance, management may undertake to redesign employees’ jobs and undertake to provide job designs that are satisfying to employees.
It can be explained that employee positive job engagement and behaviors will contribute to customer satisfaction. Customers will be quick to note positive employee attitudes as a result of perceived satisfaction at the workplace. A company that undertakes to satisfy its employees will definitely receive positive community feedback as employees are considered to be drawn from the same community as customers. Satisfied customers will provide positive information about the business and as a result a number of other potential customers will be reached, and their attempts to patronize the company will be made from an expectation of deriving satisfaction from business dealership with the said company.
Discussion
The way that jobs are designed has strong influence on how employees hold perceptions relating to their jobs, and it will in turn directly affect how their tasks will be performed. There has been considerable focus by managers and researchers to evaluate the influence of job design on customer’s satisfaction. As job design affects employee behaviors and attitudes, it will have a bearing on how the employees will interact with customers. Researchers found out that effecting change in the job situation resulted in changing employee attitudes and motivation. Motivated employees are more likely to present with a positive attitudes as opposed to less motivated employees (Korunka et al., 56).
Companies pursuing the perfect job designs for their employees may be forced to simplify jobs. Researchers warm that simplified jobs that are repetitive may result in boredom on the part of employees. These jobs can as well be tiring and dissatisfying, and it is possible that they may present risks to mental health (Heizer et al., 26). The idea of considerably increasing the efficiency and productivity of employees by reducing the size and complexity of their jobs was considered to have overlooked a person’s sense of self-worth and well-being. There was need therefore to pay more attention to finding a way to design jobs that would contribute to employee performance, well-being, and motivation simultaneously. Over the past decade, research has highlighted a strong link between job design and customer satisfaction. Responsive job designs contribute to employee engagement and the resultant effect will be happy customers. It is up to the human resource professionals to undertake effective designing of jobs to raise the levels of engagement.
The process of designing jobs has been around for a while and views regarding the particular details to include have changed considerably over time, and this has resulted in different job design theories. It is worth noting that traditional job design theories placed emphasis on job satisfaction and motivation. However, newer models focus on improving employee well-being or engagement (Dormann et al., 260). Employee engagement gained popularity recently as scholars shifted emphasis towards positive organizational behavior.
Employee engagement is considered to be “a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (Schaufeli et al., 296). Vigor can be described as exhibiting “high levels of willingness to invest energy into work, and to persevere even in the case of difficulties” (Schaufeli et al., 296). Dedication is dedication is described as “the involvement in one’s work and the experience of significance, inspiration, pride, and challenge” (Schaufeli et al., 297). Absorption which constitutes the third and last component of employee engagement refers “to being fully concentrated in work and finding it difficult to divert attention from work” (Schaufeli et al., 298). Employee engagement’s popularity and interest is attributed to its influence on employee job performance and organizational productivity leading to customer satisfaction. Human resource personnel are therefore tasked with increasing employee engagement through job design.
This discussion highlights five job design models that are considered influential, and these include: “Sociotechnical systems theory; two-factor theory; job characteristics model; demand-control model; and job demand-resources theory” (Bakker et al., 192). The described models are evaluated with regard to how job design contributes to employee engagement. Before these theories were adapted, the theory of scientific management provided the basis for redesigning jobs where employees were assign to work on the simplest tasks possible through the application of scientific process. During these times, strict supervision and stringent rules dehumanized employees, and there was no room for experimentation or suggestions. Employees worked on provided tasks within specified time periods without asking questions. The eventuality was that there was widespread employee dissatisfaction associated with simple and repetitive tasks that gave no room for engaging and meaningful work process. This was followed by a human relations movement that advocated for the inclusion of human aspects of work, and as a result led to the development of improved personnel policies. However, the movement did not succeed in countering the work alienation at the time as jobs structure remained unchanged (Matzler et al. 274). The resultant job design theories aimed at emphasizing the job characteristics that would, if managed well, contribute to increased employee motivation and satisfaction.
The sociotechnical systems (STS) theory, formulated by Eric Trist, focused on the interdependencies between people, technology, and the work environment. The theory therefore focused on combining social and technical systems to yield increased productivity and job satisfaction. It was considered to be an improvement of earlier theories that only focused on only one of the aspects as opposed to two. The technological system consisted of the equipment and methods used in the transformation of materials into products, and the social system related to the work structure that connected people to technology. The main aim of the approach was to optimize both social and technical aspects of work that are achievable through altering technology like equipment, and work structure such as roles, or at times both (Ugboro et al., 254). A conspicuous characteristic of the approach was that it focused on group as opposed to individual job design. The theory led to the development of autonomous work teams where groups focused on whole and meaningful tasks, and undertook to develop the skills relevant to their tasks. Workers had discretion over their tasks, and because of this self-regulation of the work teams, the results included higher productivity and job satisfaction and reduced supervision costs. However, the theory has inherent weaknesses, and one relates to the joint optimization of the social and technical systems. Researchers argue that redesign focuses on only one of the systems and not on optimizing both. There is no explicit description of the relationship between social and technical systems. Another weakness related to the fact that technology is considered to be a given and the social system had to be organized around technology, thereby neglecting designing and optimization of the technical system.
The two-factor theory introduced by Herzberg focused on individual jobs designing, and stated that aspects of the work and the environment influenced employee satisfaction while others were considered to cause employee dissatisfaction. Intrinsic aspects of the job including motivating factors such as tasks of interest and recognition were considered to contribute to employee satisfaction, and resulted in little dissatisfaction. On the other hand, hygiene factors associated with extrinsic aspects of the job including pay and company policy were considered to have reduced effect on satisfaction, but were likely to cause dissatisfaction if absent (Mauno et al., 159). The theory postulates that lacking motivating factors will draw attention to hygiene factors such that there will be need to provide more hygiene factors such as pay to obtain the same level of performance. This brings to the fore the consideration that the two-factor theory was considered influential, but critics argue that the conclusions provided by the theory were induced from the data. The theory also assumes that the motivating factors potentially increased the work motivation of all employees, but it is common knowledge that certain people will exhibit positive responses to diversified and complex work tasks than other categories. Therefore as a limitation, the theory provides no guidance in the determination of how individual differences should be handled in workplace settings. This does not mean that the important contribution made by the model in the introduction of the concept of job enrichment is not appreciated. Indeed, current research underscores the significance of job enrichment through promoting motivator factors and the improvement of task efficiency and satisfaction.
The job characteristics model, which is considered to be influential, provided that five key job characteristics influenced three crucial psychological states (Mauno et al., 160). These specifications of tasks are skills, independence, response, task implication, and task uniqueness. The three psychological states comprise knowledgeable meaning of job, skilled accountability of job results, and information about the results. The theory further posits that stronger expansion requirements, the necessary knowledge and skills, and considerable level of work contentment place some moderation on the association connecting the five key job descriptions and associated crucial mental state. The same effect is achieved relating to the connection linking the crucial emotional state and the job results. It is evident from the model that motivation emanating from the job can be established by assessing employee’s scoring history and skills diversity, job uniqueness, and job relevance and then multiplying the result with related scores on autonomy and feedback. The model has dominated work designing for a while, since it is considered that its variables are relatively easy to measure. Available literature also indicates support to the assumption that job characteristics are influential with regard to work-related psychological well-being, including job satisfaction.
The demand-control model (DCM) is regarded as a stress-management tool, and argues that mental strain is as a result of the interaction between job weight and work decision latitude. Specifically, it is considered that emotional tension is contributed by the combined impacts of the demand of work circumstances and the variety of the decision-making freedoms provided to the employee faced with the demands (Halbesleben et al., 115). Therefore it is considered that job stress will rise when demand increases but drop when job control increases. A major complication of the model relates to the fact that task redesigning intervenes to include increments in decision-latitude to lessen psychological stress, and therefore not essentially influencing the task burden. To organizations considering the model, suggestions concerning the job demands associated with organizational productivity do not necessarily have to be decreased. It is however important to not that there is a limit to job control, and the increase in control may be made useful in the elimination of constraints on decision making, but with special concerns that the increase in controls can add to higher levels of strain.
The jobs demands-resources model posits that job characteristics can affect employee engagement in the model. Job stress and resources are singled out as the two features of jobs. It is explained that job demands take up psychological and physical energy and when employees are exposed to jobs with high demands, they can realize emotional and material costs. For example, burnout is considered to be contributed by prolonged exposure to extreme task demands. Task wealth constitute the mental, shared, managerial, and material resources that facilitate goal attainment, decrease task requirements, and facilitate expansion and development (Crawford et al., 61). The model is considered responsive since it incorporates the parameters of the task with stress potential and increment in engagement. Job demands are considered to contribute to a health impairing progression while task requirements initiate motivation-led procedure. It is highlighted that high levels of job demands may contribute exhaustion of employee’s material and psychological endowments and may thus contribute increased vigor and health-related concerns. Considered differently, elevated job resources contribute to increased motivation and may lead to employee engagement, goal directed behaviors, and well being (Crawford et al., 61). As a perceived weakness, the model does not specify the job characteristics that are considered to be influencing outcomes favorably.
Effects of Job Characteristics on Employee Engagement
Research indicates that task endowments including collective support frameworks provided by contemporaries and leaders, performance-driven criticism, expertise diversity, independence, and education options have positive association with employee commitment (Bakker et al., 27). Halbesleben (11) established that task endowments have positive association with employee commitment by conducting a meta-analysis of 53 articles presenting 74 unique samples. There are numerous studies providing evidence of existence of a affirmative connection amid job resources and employee commitment. In a 2-year study conducted by Mauno et al. (78) task endowments forecasted job commitment more reliably than task stress. Research also indicates that resources such as reward and recognition, and innovativeness are positively related with employee engagement.
Why Customer Satisfaction Starts with Human Resource
Scholars and human resource practitioners have always argued that Human Resource drives customer satisfaction and consequently leads to increased business revenue. This contribution is achieved through careful attention of the staff hiring process so as to determine who gets hired, how the hiring process is undertaken, how post hiring training is undertaken, the coaching process of newly hired staff, and the general treatment of staff (Zeithaml et al., 172). Researchers argue that the time when customer service was considered as the responsibility of the sales staff is long gone, and the increasing role played by HR departments in establishing a customer –friendly culture. The HR departments are improving customer satisfaction by the application of activities of hiring, training, coaching and evaluation programs to arm employees with the tools and support required in developing and nurturing positive and enduring relationships with clients (Christian et al., 93). It is recognized that subtle changes in hiring and training can result in major improvements in customer satisfaction. Companies with strong customer satisfaction ratings can weather economic storms and are able to achieve sustained prosperity. There is evidence that the costs associated with acquisition of new customers is five times higher than the expenditure associated with servicing existing customers, and therefore the HR department should ensure the existence of staff who are trained and prepared to undertake customer relations irrespective of their departmental placement. To achieve such engaged staff, HR professionals have the platform facilitated by job designing and redesigning to ensure staff understand their roles and they remain motivated to undertake customer satisfaction initiatives.
While most Hr professionals are in agreement regarding the fact that hiring is considered to be the first and most crucial step in the development of a customer-friendly company, researchers have established that it is easier when the process is initiated with a goal of identifying employees with customer-satisfaction potential and continuing an elaborate process of honing the skills of the identified employees. Training and preparing every employee is considered to be expense and time consuming; besides not all employees will respond the same way towards programs aimed at improving their customer-relations skills.
Conclusion
There is consensus that job design presents an opportunity for companies to initiate strategies geared towards building a customer-friendly enterprise. The exhaustive discussion undertaken to illustrate the significance of using job designing to accomplish the goal of employee engagement serves to highlight the consideration that if employees are satisfied they are likely to carry the satisfaction to the customer through the manifestation of a customer focused culture. The human resource department can actively undertake to implement strategies aimed at achieving company-wide customer satisfaction. This can be implemented through ensuring that hiring, training, and support is provided to the right employees. This will be instrumental in the development of a customer-friendly company culture that ensures that all employees are trained and prepared for the important function of customer relations. There can be implementation of systems that ensure that customer-employee interactions are monitored with the aim of providing feedback and establishing a foundation for improvement.
Works Cited
Bakker, Arnold B., and Matthijs P. Bal. "Weekly work engagement and performance: A study among starting teachers." Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 83.1 (2010): 189-206.
Christian, Michael S., Adela S. Garza, and Jerel E. Slaughter. "Work engagement: A quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance." Personnel Psychology 64.1 (2011): 89-136.
Crawford, Eean R., Jeffery A. LePine, and Bruce Louis Rich. "Linking job demands and resources to employee engagement and burnout: a theoretical extension and meta-analytic test." Journal of Applied Psychology 95.5 (2010): 834.
Dormann, Christian, and Diana M. Kaiser. "Job conditions and customer satisfaction." European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 11.3 (2002): 257-283.
Grant, Adam M., and Sharon K. Parker. "7 redesigning work design theories: the rise of relational and proactive perspectives." The Academy of Management Annals 3.1 (2009): 317-375.
Halbesleben, Jonathon RB. "A meta-analysis of work engagement: Relationships with burnout, demands, resources, and consequences." Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research 8 (2010): 102-117.
Heizer, Rander, and Barry Render. "Operation Management, Sustainability and Supply Chain management." (2013).
Korunka, Christian, et al. "Employee strain and job satisfaction related to an implementation of quality in a public service organization: a longitudinal study." Work & Stress 17.1 (2003): 52-72.
Matzler, Kurt, et al. "The asymmetric relationship between attribute-level performance and overall customer satisfaction: a reconsideration of the importance–performance analysis." Industrial Marketing Management 33.4 (2004): 271-277.
Mauno, Saija, Ulla Kinnunen, and Mervi Ruokolainen. "Job demands and resources as antecedents of work engagement: A longitudinal study." Journal of Vocational Behavior 70.1 (2007): 149-171.
Schaufeli, Wilmar B., and Arnold B. Bakker. "Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi‐sample study." Journal of organizational Behavior 25.3 (2004): 293-315.
Ugboro, Isaiah O., and Kofi Obeng. "Top management leadership, employee empowerment, job satisfaction, and customer satisfaction in TQM organizations: an empirical study." Journal of Quality management 5.2 (2000): 247-272.
Zeithaml, Valarie A., Mary Jo Bitner, and Dwayne D. Gremler. Services marketing strategy. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2010.
