Sociology is a complex field of study that looks at many different aspects of the world we live in. Sociologists may study society as a whole, or study the social lives of individuals, groups, and societies. They might also consider behavior of humans, from individual contacts with strangers, to the intricacies of global interactions. The study of sociology involves looking at how large groups interact with each other with an eye toward making everything equal. It also ties together several other disciplines such as history, psychology, and economics . Sociologists use three different methods to study society. This section looks at those three methods in depth, including a comparison and advantages and disadvantages of each method.
The first method of studying sociology is called Positivist Sociology. This method is considered by some to be the purer scientific method because it uses quantitative methods to answer questions about society while remaining neutral. In stressing the scientific method positivist sociologists discover facts through a logical system that adds to the body of knowledge through direct, systematic observation. Positivist sociology uses empirical evidence, which is evidence that can be verified with our senses . This is similar to the work done in a college chemistry lab, only using people as subjects.
The empirical method of positivist sociology begins with a concept, which is a mental image representing some aspect of life, or the world, in a simplified form (Macionis 23). In the research, socialists identify a variable they want to study. This is a concept with values that change from case to case. The key to identifying a variable to study is that it must have a value that can be accurately measured. In order for research to be considered valid, researchers must specify exactly what is to be measured to create a value. Reliability and validity are critical to empirical research, therefore, it is critical to positivist sociologists. To ensure reliability, measurements must be consistent, meaning that the same result is obtained time after time. In addition to making sure measurements, and therefore data, are reliable, researchers must also make sure the measurements are valid. A researcher can have perfectly reliable measurements but still not have valid research if they are not measuring the right object or data. This means that the researchers must make sure that the questions they are asking actually address the answers they are seeking. They cannot always assume that the groups they are studying are actually the right groups.
In order to help eliminate validity issues, researchers use a lot of statistics. The larger the sample used, the more likely the results will represent the overall population. Therefore, researchers create a lot of data that can be overwhelming. In order to simplify understanding, they use descriptive statistics, which means that they use terms like the mean, which is the average of all of the numbers, the median, which is the score at the mid-point of all possible scores, and the mode, which is the score that occurs most often.
The main object of empirical study is to try to determine the cause and effect of a relationship. Researchers will use an independent variable to cause change in a dependent variable to determine a correlation between the two. They will try to repeat this as many times as possible to ensure that the direct correlation does exist. At the same time, they will attempt to limit other factors from influencing the dependent variable to avoid spurious correlations.
The main focus of positivist sociology is to study society with an objective mind. Positivists want to remain totally neutral in the research to avoid biases.
Interpretive sociology takes a totally different approach to the study of society. The concept of interpretive sociology was developed by Max Weber, of Germany, who wanted to find a way to better understand subjective experience, as opposed to strict adherence to facts and observation . Where positivists focus on empirical studies and quantitative research, interpretive sociologists look at how people place meaning in their actions. They interpret what people think or mean as they encounter others. For example, positivists study what people do, because that can be observed, while interpretive sociologists study why people do things, or what they think about things. Positivists believe that there is an objective reality in the world, interpretive sociologists think that the world is more subjective and changes with everyday life. Positivist sociology favors quantitative methods, as mentioned above, while interpretive sociology goes more for the qualitative methods (Macionis 26). Finally, positivist sociologists believe that research is best in a laboratory setting where they can control the variables, while the interpretive sociologists believe they can learn more by interacting with subjects in the real world.
The third method used by sociologist is called critical sociology. This method is similar to the interpretive method, except critical sociologists study society with the goal of changing society, hopefully for the better. They will use empirical methods to study society, but instead of just reporting “this is the way it is”, they will, instead, say “why is it this way”, and “how can we change it”. Critical sociologists are considered activists in their methodology because they have a clear goal to create change (Macionis 27). They have a bias, and they acknowledge it.
Positivists are critical of the critical sociologists because of their lack of objectivity. They claim that using the critical sociological method is political, and being political means that you cannot be objective (Macionis 27). Critical sociologists, on the other hand, believe that it is not enough to just understand the world as it is; scientists must also be willing to improve it.
While it may be difficult to try to determine which way of studying sociology is the best, it will more than likely come down to each sociologist determining what method is best for them, given their views of society. In an ideal world, we would have enough dedicated experts practicing each method that they would complement each other and lead to a better society for all.
One area of society that sociologists research is the concept of deviance. Deviance is considered to be a violation of cultural norms (Macionis 198). Deviance comes in many varieties, from criminal activity to just being different. Sociologists study both how and why people become deviant and how and why society deems others to be deviant. From a sociological point of view, deviants are necessary for society because they help determine what is normal and acceptable. This section considers three social foundations of deviance and four functions of deviance in society.
The first foundation of deviance is that deviance varies according to cultural norms (Macionis 201). What is considered to be deviant activity in one place may be accepted in another. Cultural norms may be different from one county to the next in the United States, but they are clearly different between the United States and other parts of the world. Cultural norms may be established by traditions of the local population, or they may be established by local laws and ordinances. A person may be considered a deviant by breaking a law that he did not even know existed, or he may be a deviant by choice.
A second foundation of deviance is that people become deviant when they are defined that way (Macionis 201). Sociologists acknowledge that every individual violates cultural norms at some time in their lives (Macionis 202). It may be intentional or unknowingly, but norms are broken. Whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on how others in the society define it and respond to it. Identifying an activity as the result of mental illness or as a criminal act is solely dependent on society (Macionis 202).
The third foundation of deviance is that social power is what determines social norms and what is considered rule breaking (Macionis 202). Depending upon who you ask, laws may be there to promote a peaceful society, or they may be in place to protect the interests of the powerful. Why can some people be arrested for drinking a bottle of alcohol on the curb, while down the street, others are drinking alcohol on the patio of a fancy restaurant? Why would one be considered deviant but not the other?
With the foundations of deviance in place, we can look at the functions of deviance. As mentioned previously, deviancy actually performs a function in society. The first function of deviance is that it helps to affirm cultural values and norms (Mancionis 202). As a society, we tend to prefer some behaviors over others. However, we cannot have good values if we do not also have bad values. By having values or behaviors that we consider to be against the good of society, or deviant, we show that we value our good behavior and it helps to validate our morals.
The second function of deviance is that it helps set moral boundaries (Macionis 202). If we identify some individuals as deviant, or some activity as deviant, we are setting boundaries. By identifying what is bad, we know what is good.
The third function of deviance is to bring people, or societies together. When faced with serious deviances, we tend to band together in our outrage (Mancionis 202). By grouping together, and voicing our outrage with certain activities, we strengthen our moral codes and set cultural norms.
The final function of deviance is to create social change. Deviant people, or groups, tend to push the moral boundaries of a society. This can encourage alternatives to the status quo that encourages change (Mancionis 202). In other words, not all deviance is bad. It is important to remember that deviance is just something different than the norm. During the 1960’s in the United States, young people began to wear their hair long as a protest of the establishment. This was considered deviant at the time. However, just a few years later, long hair was accepted as the norm in most parts of society. The long haired types went from young school aged radicals to executives in the board room. So sociologists point out that deviance may be a sign of changes to come.
The key to considering deviance in society is to remember that there are many types of deviance, from criminal activity to people who do not fit in because of the way they dress, or the color of their skin. The way a society treats its deviants can say a lot about how evolved and cultured that society is.
References
American Sociological Association. What is Sociology. n.d. Online. 4 April 2016. <http://www.asanet.org/about/sociology.cfm>.
Cranford, Nathan. Difference Between Positivist, INterpretive and Critical Sociology. 2016. Online. 5 April 2016. <http://education.seattlepi.com/difference-between-positivist-interpretive-critical-sociology-6396.html>.
Macionis, J. J. Society: The Basics. Thirteenth Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2015. Textbook.
