Chlorine is used in water treatment to reduce or eradicate microorganisms, for instance, bacteria or viruses found in water (EPA, 2011). The use of chlorine for the treatment of drinking water has significantly reduced the risks or exposures to water-borne infections or diseases. Besides, the supplies of safe or treated drinking water are paramount for the health as well as the general well-being of the public. Untreated water sources, for example, streams, boreholes, dams, wells, or rain water can harbor certain harmful or dangerous microorganisms, which when consumed may cause serious infections such as cholera, dysentery, or typhoid, as well as death in extreme cases (EHD, 2012). This paper addresses the magnitude of chlorine use in water treatment especially with an insightful scrutiny from the world’s perspective. It analyzes the benefits and the complications of using chlorine in drinking water. Additionally, it gives possible alternatives to the process of chlorination.
Chlorine is majorly used for water treatment because of its simplicity, reliability, efficiency, effectiveness, as well as its imperatively low costs. More importantly is its safe nature to protect waters intended for drinking against primary and secondary sources of contamination, such as micro and macro biological organisms (EHD, 2012). Moreover, chlorine has been perennially used for water treatment. Hence, the methods, as well as equipment, are ideally designed or properly operated, and their effectiveness is documented or understood. Furthermore, chlorine has a residual effect, hence, once water is treated, it remains available in that water until it is distributed to the end users. It further keeps water free of contamination from secondary contaminants found in the distribution systems or channels (EPA, 2011).
The safety of drinking water has greatly been improved by the use of chlorine as a disinfectant. For instance, in Canada, chlorine has been used for water treatment for approximately more than a full century, with great positive effects (Health Canada, 2015). Therefore, being such an effective and efficient disinfectant, chlorine has remained a necessity, household, industry, or healthcare facilities item. Chlorine affiliated products are frequently used for sterilization of baby feeding improvised bottles, treating swimming pools (both domestic as well as commercial), spas or hydrotherapy facilities.
However, chlorine when added to water, it reacts to produce certain chemical byproducts that can be in small or large amounts depending on the intensity or the volume of chlorine used. Such byproducts released include Trihalo-methanes (THMs), which is composed of chloroforms, hypochlorous acid, or hypochlorite ion. These byproducts exist in a balanced equilibrium while the relative amounts only vary with the existing pHs. In pH levels, which are above 4.0, there are low amounts of molecular chlorine found in solution (EPA, 2011). Nevertheless, there can be a reaction between chlorine, ammonia, as well as amines in water to produce chloramines (EHD, 2012).
Chlorine is further used in water systems with a view of adding taste as well as controlling odor. Besides, it helps in removing iron as well as manganese available in water. Additionally, chlorine also inhibits nuisance growths, which can develop in wells, streams, water pipes, other storage facilities, or water conduits. Chlorine is added to drinking water as gas or sometimes added as hypochlorite (EHD, 2012).
On the other hand, chlorine use has adverse health effects, which must be addressed immediately. For instance, its use remains insignificant in treating waters that have Cryptosporidium as well as other protozoan infested waters, which when consumed by a human can cause negative health complications. Besides, chlorination remains ineffective in waters with high pH because of the large amounts of hypochlorite ion rather than hypochlorous acid (EPA, 2011). In the event of the addition of chlorine to such waters, there is a reaction between Cl2 with naturally occurring organic matter (NOMs) as well as bromide that culminates in the formation of byproducts such as THMs and certain halo acetic acids. The amounts that result from such reactions are about the volume of chlorine used for treatment as well as the contact time, more so between the NOMs and chlorine. The exposure that occurs between humans and byproducts is what results in health complications. Therefore, the America’s Environmental Protective Agency (EPA) recommends standard amounts of chlorine used for water treatments due to fears of increased risks associated with cancer as well as other reproductive or developmental health effects (EPA, 2011).
The formation of hypochlorite solutions due to the reaction of chlorine and water also results in health complications. It causes corrosion of the upper gastrointestinal tract when ingested and irritation of the skin (Leeds, 2015). Exposures normally occur accidentally or in some cases it is intentional ingestion. Ingestion of hypochlorite solutions causes esophageal irritation in some people, though with no permanent consequences. Major exposures can result in esophageal or gastric mucosal corrosions or erosions. Besides, it causes perforations in the gastro-esophageal link, which result in necrosis of the nearby soft tissues. Additionally, being a key disinfectant in most homes, aspiration of chlorine-based byproducts such as hypochlorite bleach into human lungs can cause death (Neukrug, 2015).
Some people over-react to chlorinated water due to the presence of hypochlorite ions. Allergic reactions are common due to exposure to chlorinated water. Besides, skin infections or dermatitis are frequently reported among populations. However, there are little data to validate the effect of hypochlorite solutions when it comes into direct contacts with the human's eyes; this does not imply that there are no major consequences due to such contacts (Leeds, 2015).
There are research linkages between chlorine found in drinking water to the current higher incidences or occurrences of the bladder, rectal, colon, as well as breast cancers. This is attributed to the formation of THMs, which when ingested, bolster the growth or existence of free radicals in the body, hence damaging or destroying vital body cells. Besides, women who suffer from breast cancer, tend to have 50-60% levels of chlorine byproducts or organ-chlorines in their breasts cells or tissues (Health Canada, 2015). Moreover, laboratory animals that are subjected to extremely high amounts of THMs have recorded considerably increased risks of suffering from cancer. Besides, long-term exposures are linked to cancer in humans. Furthermore, there are increased cases of miscarriage especially among women who consumed large volumes of water, which contain high levels of THMs (EHD, 2012).
In spite of such research, which link chlorinated drinking water with such life-threatening conditions, such as cancer, there are major gaps especially in substantiating the proof or relationship between THMs and cancer, birth defects, or miscarriages. Moreover, no conclusive data or evidence has been tabled to challenge the use of chlorine in treating water for drinking. Therefore, when recommended levels are observed, for instance, Australia uses 5mg of chlorine per liter of water; there should be no cause for an alarm (EHD, 2012).
Despite the fact that chlorine is commonly used in water treatment, there are other treatment methods that can be deployed in making drinking water safe. This includes ozonation; most states use ozone to treat or disinfect their drinking waters. Because ozonation is safe as it does not emit THMs, though, it breaks down rapidly hence, cannot be applied to sustain disinfection in a water channel. Therefore, little amounts of chlorine must be included in such disinfectants. Others include chloramines and chlorine dioxide (Health Canada, 2015).
In conclusion, the use of chlorine has proven more effective and efficient from every perspective, that is, economically, socially, as well as from health view. Chlorinated water has enabled a significant reduction in morbidities as well as mortalities due water infections. Therefore, states or cities must ensure that the water treatment plants comply with the set standards for chlorine use in water treatment, for example, the Canadian Drinking Water Quality or America's EPA should monitor the quality of water being used by the public.
References
Environmental Health Directorate (EHD) (2012). Chlorinated Drinking Water: Western Australia, Department of Health.
Health Canada (2015). It’s Your Health: Toronto, www.hc-sc.gc.ca/Water quality
Leeds. T. (2015). 2015 Water Quality Report: Delivering High-Quality Water to Your Tap: Kansas, Missouri, KCWATER Services.
Neukrug, M. H. (2015). Drinking Water Quality Report: Philadelphia, Philadelphia Water.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2011). Water Treatment Manual: Disinfection: Wexford, Ireland, ISBN: 978-184095-421-0, EPA.
