Research Paper
Introduction
The social world is as complex as the physical world. Due to such complexity, sociologists have made considerable efforts to explain various social phenomena through different sociological theories. One of the major sociological theories is functionalism, which has its origins in the works of Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim. The functionalist theory explains how societies survive and maintain social stability. It also explores dysfunctional events like suicide. This paper argues that functionalism can provide a reasonable and accurate explanation of the phenomenon of suicide since social factors, like excessive social cohesion or the lack of it and extreme social regulation or the absence of it, force some individuals to commit suicide.
Functionalist Theory
Functionalism, also known as structural-functionalism or the functionalist theory, constitutes an integrated model of the study of social systems and society. As stated by Barnes (1995), in particular, “from a functionalist perspective, the key feature of 'society' considered as a unified system is its orderliness and relative stability in the context of a changing environment” (Barnes, 2014, 37). The works of Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer established functionalism in the field of sociology and anthropology. Spencer and Durkheim, both inspired by the works of Auguste Comte, developed a biological framework of society and examined the functioning, structure, and systems of societies (Andersen et al., 2014) in a way comparable to the study of the functioning and structure of organic beings.
Basically, Durkheim pioneered the development of a clear-cut functionalist group of principles. First, a social system should exhibit a certain level of intrinsic integration among its component units. Second, the core theoretical undertaking is to identify the functions, or outcomes, of a component unit for the coordination or unification of the general whole. Third, the 'causes' of a unit should be examined independently or apart from its 'functions' for social unification (Steele, 2011). And, lastly, the demand for or necessity of social integration works as a discriminatory process for the continued existence of those units that promote social integration. In essence, functionalism was originally intended to demonstrate social institutions as a unified, integrated way of fulfilling the biological needs of individuals (Barnes, 2014). Eventually, it became more focused on how social institutions fulfill the social needs of individuals, thus the shift to structural-functionalism.
Essentially, Durkheim was more interested in explaining how societies protect its survival and sustain its internal stability. He attempted to provide an explanation of social stability and integration through the principle of solidarity. He coined the concept of 'mechanical solidarity' to describe how 'primitive' societies are held together by similar tasks performed by all the members of society (Mulkay, 2014). Durkheim argued that these societies are usually subdivided or segregated, consisting of identical or comparable parts that are unified by systems of interactions, shared symbols, values, and beliefs. In contrast, members of complex, modern societies carry out quite distinct tasks, creating a heavy interdependence among the members (Brym & Lie, 2012). Using the symbol of an organism wherein numerous parts work interdependently to hold the whole together, Durkheim explained that complex, modern societies are unified by organic solidarity.
Functionalism promotes the idea that social institutions are purposefully and practically unified to create a secure system and that a shift in one unit (e.g. institutions) will bring about a shift in other units. The different parts of society, according to functionalists, operate in a self-regulating, semi-mechanical way toward the continuation of the entire social stability. All cultural and social aspects are thus viewed as functional since they are working side by side to attain this stability or equilibrium and are thus believed to have an 'existence' or 'being' of their own (Trevino, 2014). Functionalists start with an image of society that highlights the interconnection of the social system; they are interested in exploring how effectively the parts are unified with one another.
Functionalism compares society to a machine, where all its parts work together to generate the productive mechanisms needed to sustain the functioning of society. Most significantly, functionalists underline the forces that sustain social stability by highlighting agreement and consensus (Andersen et al., 2014). Even though functionalism recognizes that change is certain or unavoidable, they point to the progressive, transformative aspect of change. Moreover, even though functionalists recognize that disagreement between individuals and/or groups could arise, they believe that there is a shared element to hold people together or society will collapse. In summary, functionalism explores the social mechanisms needed to establish and sustain social stability and order.
Functionalist Theory of Suicide
On the surface, deviance appears to be counterproductive or dysfunctional for society. However, functionalism says the opposite. They argue that deviance is functional for it results in social unity and integration (Andersen et al., 2014). Labeling particular behaviors or actions as deviant creates divergence or opposition to those that are labeled 'normal', creating a profound sense of social stability among members of the society. The functionalist model of deviance originates from Durkheim's ideas. Durkheim formed his work on deviance primarily through his work on suicide. He identified several major functionalist ideas as regards suicide.
Primarily, Durkheim opposed the common psychological explanations of the reason(s) individuals commit suicide. He used sociological perspectives to explain suicide with empirical data to support them. And, then, Durkheim placed emphasis on the role of society in creating deviance. Afterward, he stressed the value of the social attachment of individuals to society in explaining suicide. Using the functionalist perspective, Durkheim argued that the cause(s) of suicide cannot be found in individual traits, but in social forces (Brym & Lie, 2012). Seeing that the prevalence of suicide in society differ spatially and temporally, he explored the contributing factors associated with these aspects besides emotional distress.
Durkheim explained that the prevalence of suicide is influenced by the various social settings wherein they arise. He examined the extent to which individuals feel attached or united into the social structure and their social environment as social aspects causing suicide. Durkheim provided an explanation of the differences in suicide rates by studying how socially regulated and socially integrated society is and developed four kinds of social suicide. When a group is characterized by excessive social integration, when there is excessive cohesion, altruistic suicide might arise. Extreme social integration and cohesion could encourage members of the group to commit suicide on behalf of their group (Trevino, 2014). One perfect example of altruistic suicide is suicide bombing, which is carried out by suicide bombers not for personal reasons but for the honor and shared objectives of their group.
On the contrary, when a group has weak social cohesion and integration, egoistic suicide could arise. Here certain individuals commit suicide because of too much isolation or detachment. For instance, a number of researchers found out that although several risk factors push some individuals to kill themselves, one of the major causes is social isolation, which arises from having weak social support systems, experiencing seclusion or depression, or losing a loved one, among other things (Trevino, 2014). On the other hand, fatalistic suicide may happen if there is excessive social regulation of the behavior of members of the society. Those who commit fatalistic suicide think that there is no other way out of their abusive, difficult situation but death. Among women in some Arab countries, for instance, fatalistic suicide is common because of a customary patriarchal or male-dominated social order (Andersen et al., 2014) that forces women to do things they would not otherwise do (e.g. marrying at an early age) and subjects them to oppressive situations (e.g. domestic abuse).
In contrast, weak or inadequate social control, which results in the lack of norms or rules, brings about a rise in the prevalence of anomic suicide. This suggests that individuals commit suicide because of the absence of norms to provide them social guidelines and rules for fulfilling their needs (Trevino, 2014). One case in point is the correlation between the prevalence of suicide among men and joblessness. One research found out that when men become jobless, the controlling impact of society on the necessity to have a job is interrupted, bringing about an increase in the possibility of suicide (Trevino, 2014; Andersen et al., 2014). In other words, functionalists stress the value to a society of firm and secure social cohesion and shared values. It also underlines the importance of social support systems.
Once disturbing or unsettling situations (e.g. social change) take place, moral value systems may collapse, and individuals may become increasingly unsure about how to live their lives and thus lose the purpose or meaning of living. Wars and social disturbances are episodes that create such suicidal ideas and anomie. A certain type of social support is personal relationship, companionship, or belonging, where an individual feels like s/he is part of a whole (Brym & Lie, 2012). Actual support includes financial aspects, like having people eager to provide financial help or support. Other supports, such as emotional and esteem supports, could discourage all the types of suicide (Barnes, 2014) that Durkheim identified. Simply put, Durkheim shows how an imbalance in the level of social regulation/social control and social integration/cohesion can be dysfunctional or disruptive to society, hence leading to increased prevalence of suicide.
In summary, using the functionalist model, Durkheim explained that the higher the level to which members of the group interact with one another, and the more they share the same values and beliefs, the greater the social cohesion in the group. Consequently, the greater the degree of social cohesion, the more strongly rooted people are to their society and the less prone they are to kill themselves if hardship occurs. In essence, Durkheim discovered that societies with an increased level of social cohesion had reduced rates of suicide than societies with low levels of cohesion (Andersen et al., 2014). For example, married individuals were less likely to commit suicide than unmarried ones because being married normally build social bonds and a form of moral adhesive that binds people to their society (Brym & Lie, 2012). Thus, functionalism argues that suicide is largely caused by social factors.
Conclusions
The functionalist theory has been widely used in sociology to explain how societies are able to survive over time and how they sustain social stability that is crucial to their continued existence. Functionalism, in simple words, argues that society is made up of parts, such as social institutions, that work together to ensure the survival of the social structure. Functionalism can also be used to explain the phenomenon of suicide. Durkheim and other functionalists argue that different forms of suicide happen because of imbalance in social cohesion, integration, and solidarity. When the constituent parts of society are malfunctioning, society becomes dysfunctional and, in consequence, disruptive events like suicide are more likely to occur.
References
Andersen, M. et al. (2014). Sociology: the essentials. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
Barnes, B. (2014). The elements of social theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Brym, R. & Lie, J. (2012). Sociology: pop culture to social structure. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
Mulkay, M. (2014). Functionalism, exchange, and theoretical strategy. London: Routledge.
Steele, B. (2011). Revisiting classical functional theory: towards a twenty-first century micro- politics. Journal of International Political Theory, 7(1), 16-39.
Trevino, A. (2014). Investigating social problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
