I. Introduction
In comparison to other industrialized nations, the United States does not place nearly as much educational emphasis on bilingualism or multilingualism. However, within the United States, there is a growing demand for bilingual and multilingual individuals at all levels of industry, from the lowest levels of customer service to the highest levels of government. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of government, industry, education, and society in regards to language education and policy in the United States and other English-speaking countries. It will investigate the ways in which other countries support and encourage language-learning among its citizens, and the ways that the United States supports and fails to support language-learning among citizens. In addition, a theoretical approach to understanding what has worked and what has failed to work in regards to language acquisition both in the United States and abroad will be closely addressed.
Americans are born into an English-speaking country, and speaking English fluently as natives is a boon to most insofar as business and travel is concerned; most countries have people who can communicate in English available to business people and travelers. However, the increasing need for bilingualism and multilingualism in businesspeople is becoming problematic for people in the United States, many of whom do not have the language-learning opportunities that those outside the United States receive. The United States has not made learning a second language a critical part of its education system despite the demands of government and industry as well as the expectations of the overwhelming majority across the country; this lack of concern regarding language education and multilingualism in American citizens has had far-reaching consequences that will continue to arise without careful consideration of potential future business opportunities. By failing to provide adequate language skills during early education, the United States government is failing to prepare citizens for the future.
II. Bilingualism, multilingualism and cultural impact
A discussion of a few key terms is the first issue at hand when discussing language-acquisition in American society. First, Tucker (1998) describes bilingualism as the ability to speak two languages with native or near-native ability and fluency. Multilingualism, on the other hand, is defined by Tucker (1998) as the ability to speak more than two languages, although fluency and near-native ability is not necessary for multilingualism in any language acquired after the third language. Bilingual education-- or multilingual education-- is not the same as introducing simple language classes into the curriculum, according to Tucker (1998) and Canagarajah (2002). To encourage multilingual education, courses on all subjects must be taught in a variety of different languages (Canagarajah, 2002). This will provide students with true multilingual education, rather than quarantining language education within the confines of the language classroom (Canagarajah, 2002). Although language education will be discussed in depth in section two, it is important to note that there is a difference between language education and language immersion, the latter of which is important for true bilingualism or multilingualism (Canagarajah, 2002).
Most of the world is bilingual or multilingual to some extent, with the United States and her educational system remaining the exception to the rule as far as industrialized nations are concerned. Tucker (1998) writes, “a small number of languages including Arabic, Bengali, Englishand Spanish serve as important link languages or languages of wider communication around the world, these are often spoken as second, third, fourth, or later-acquired languages. Fewer than 25% of the world's approximately 200 countries recognize two or more official languages[] However, despite these conservative government policies, available data indicate that there are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual” (Tucker, 1998, pp. 3). Tucker (1998) goes on to state, however, that many Americans are wholly monolingual, setting them apart from the rest of the world as far as language-acquisition is concerned.
Culturally, monolingualism in American business and industry stifles the average American's ability to communicate on the world stage. In business, many people are speaking English as a second or third language, while Americans are speaking English as a first language (Tucker, 1998). This is not necessarily a bad thing for Americans, but the ability to communicate in more than one language-- even conversationally, if not fluently-- makes the individual much more approachable to those who are speaking English as a second, third, or fourth language (Tucker, 1998). In addition, Lafromboise, Coleman and Gerton (1993) write, “ the alternation model, which posits that an individual is able to gain competence within 2 cultures without losing his or her cultural identity or having to choose one culture over the other” suggesting that a person who speaks a second language fluently is essentially becoming comfortable in a second culture that may or may not be his or her own (Lafromboise, Coleman et al., 1993, pp. 395). An individual who is attempting to speak a language that someone else is fluent in will put the other at ease insofar as using his or her second language is concerned (Tucker, 1998). In business, putting people at ease culturally is often fundamentally important when it comes to making business connections and forging partnerships and bonds across culturally-distinct lines.
III. Multilingual education
For the purposes of discussion within this section, the term “multilingual education” will be used to encompass bilingual education as well as education that occurs in more than two languages. In regards to multilingual education, most research has been done on bilingual systems, although multilingual systems have also been studied (Lafromboise, Coleman, and Gerton, 1993). England (2009) writes: “Despite the debate over the best practices of the education of language minorities, expanding America’s ability to interact with an increasingly global economy will require school systems to fashion effective language education policies for all students. Indeed, as the American economy has shifted from low-skilled, labor-intensive industry towards high-skilled capital-intensive industry, effective education of all strata of American society has become increasingly important” (England, 2009, pp. 1236). Because so much business goes on in the international marketplace today, people must be well-educated on different cultures. One of the best ways to educate people across cultural barriers, England (2009) writes, is to educate them in another language.
England (2009) notes that there are very clear and precise reasons why the United States has fallen behind other similar nations in regards to multilingual education. England (2009) writes, “Despite the variety of policies enacted at the state level, there has been a significant decline in support for bilingual education due largely in part to the development of organizations formed to oppose the use of languages other than English as the medium of instruction in United States schools. These groups are part of a wider movement seeking to establish English as the official language of the United States and limit the use of minority languages” (England, 2009, pp. 1219). Canagarajah (2002) echoes this sentiment, adding that even in academic circles, English is considered the “gold standard” of academic writing, and that support for papers written in alternate languages is minimal unless the papers are translated to English (Canagarajah, 2002). Canagarajah (2002) traces this language preference to cultural forces that are described as nationalistic and even xenophobic. This fear of immigrants changing the United States has, according to England (2009), prevented the United States from instituting early bilingual education programs in the same manner as other nations. According to England (2009), this is one reason the United States is falling behind other countries in terms of bilingual educational opportunities.
There is a common refrain in popular thought that younger children learn language “better” than adults do, but this is not altogether a true statement (Cenoz and Genessee, 1998). Young children learn language much differently than adults, and because they use the language for longer, often have a high degree of fluency. Cenoz and Genessee (1998) note, however, that it is practice that improves the function of language, not age-- that is to say that adults are completely capable of becoming bilingual and multilingual. What Cenoz and Genessee (1998) do note is that accent acquisition in young children is better than that of their adult counterparts.
In regards to the ability of children to acquire language, Cenoz and Genessee (1998) write, “The results of this study indicate that children who have received the same amount of instruction in English at different ages present different results [] younger learners present differences when compared to the other two groups because they borrow a higher proportion of terms from Basque [their native tongue] than the rest of the learners” (Cenoz and Genessee, 1998, pp. 23-24). However, they go on to note that young learners are much more adept at absorbing grammatical patterns and differences than older learners, as they are still in a language-acquisition phase of development.
For the United States, these research results indicate that the lack of multilingual education in schools sets children back insofar as bilingualism and bilingual fluency is concerned. However, there are political forces at play that keep the United States from investing in the future by creating multilingual education for students; notably, it is a drive to maintain the superiority of the English language in business and government in the United States (England, 2009).
Multilingual educational programs should, according to England (2009) start as young as possible. In most countries outside the United States, multilingual educational programs start in preschool or kindergarten, and become more advanced as time goes on (Christian, Howard and Loeb, 2000). However, in the United States, many language classes do not appear in schools until middle or even high school. This late start in language acquisition sets American students back in comparison to their peers around the world, many of whom start English language classes very early in life (Christian, Howard, and Loeb, 2000).
If multilingual educational programs are so important, then it is also important to look into what makes a specific program successful as a multilingual educational program. The Pacific Policy Research Institute (2010) of Hawaii notes that there are three methods for educational programs: total immersion programs, partial immersion programs, and two-way immersion programs (Pacific Policy Research Institute, 2010). Total immersion courses are courses that do not allow the student to speak any language but the immersion language. The Pacific Policy Research Institute (2010) writes that the type of language program that is most popular in the United States today is the third type of program, or a two-way immersion program. The research institute states that these programs have a number of characteristics: first, they are instructed in two languages; second, one language is used at a time; and third, peer-to-peer facilitated language sharing is heavily encouraged (Pacific Policy Research Institute, 2010). Regardless of the type of program utilized, the program should be additive rather than subtractive, meaning the purpose of the program should not be to remove the dominant language, but to add a second language to the student’s lexicon (Pacific Policy Research Institute, 2010).
Encouraging bilingual fluency and educational programs that strive for this goal are much better in the United States than programs that cater to English-speaking students. English as a second language (henceforth ESL) students are often provided with good ESL programs that are immersion-style programs, designed to bring those students up to grade level in English, regardless of their starting English level (Garcia, 2002).
Garcia (2002) does not research heavily into why these programs are so much better than programs for English-speaking students, but does suggest that there is an element of xenophobia and nationalism at play in the funding and support of ESL programs that does not exist in the funding for other language programs. In regards to cultural attitudes regarding bilingualism and immigration in the United States, England (2009) writes:
Perceptions of immigration policies have changed significantly in recent years, motivated in part by the recognized need for low-skilled services that most Americans will not perform. However, such rhetoric fails to capture the plight of those documented and legal immigrants who do not wish to remain on the bottom rung of the economy, and for whom such jobs are becoming increasingly scarce. To be able to effectively move beyond this bottom tier, immigrants must be presented with realistic opportunities to learn English (England, 2009, pp. 1236).
The rhetoric that the United States is falling victim to, according to multiple researchers, is wreaking havoc on the ability of students in the United States to learn second, third, and fourth languages, and thus harming their ability to work effectively in the business world later in their lives.
IV. Multilingual and bilingual business
Business is another sphere that is affected closely by language. Because business is carried out on a global scale today, it is becoming more and more common to engage in a professional environment with people of a different cultural background. Nickerson (2005) writes that although English is used almost universally for business, there are certain cultures that do not respond readily to those who are outside their cultural sphere; she notes that Asian cultures, particularly the Chinese and Japanese cultures, speak English out of necessity, but do business with much less contention when within their own cultural sphere (Nickerson, 2005).
Nickerson (2005) notes that while English is the lingua franca of the business world, those who are bilingual are respected within the business community as being culturally sensitive and more trustworthy (Nickerson, 2005). Fuertes-Olivera and Nielsen (2008) write, “The above analysis shows that people engaging in cross-border business communication should be aware of intralinguistic and interlinguistic politeness features. Translators of business texts normally use bilingual business dictionaries as help to solve various communicative and cognitive problems when translating business letters, but these dictionaries do not address pragmatic issues. We have demonstrated that politeness is a must in business communication for establishing successful relationships and that politeness plays a crucial role [] By including information on contrastive politeness in business discourse, lexicographers may design crafted bilingual business dictionaries that translators of business communication find valuable” (Fuertes-Olivera and Nielsen, 2008, pp. 677). Because different cultures have different standards of politeness and different social and cultural norms, understanding the culture and language of that culture is important for good business communication (Fuertes-Olivera and Nielsen, 2008).
As stated previously, it is important to note that cultural norms and standards of politeness are tied closely to language (Tucker, 1998). Without recognizing that it is nearly impossible to fully understand a culture without understanding its language, cultural misunderstandings in business can and will occur. Business is built on
V. Conclusion
Currently, all research shows that bilingualism and multilingualism in children and adults is nothing but beneficial in both the short run and the long run. Individuals who are bilingual or multilingual have a better chance of succeeding in a globalized business world, even though English has become the lingua franca of the business world as a whole (Nickerson, 2005). Learning a language from a young age is more likely to give an individual the language skills that he or she needs to become fluent in the language for business purposes, as well.
The United States has an ingrained illusion regarding bilingual education-- that is to say that many places in the United States do not see bilingual education as particularly important. However, bilingual education will help students become relevant in a world that is becoming more and more culturally diverse; for instance, Arabic and Chinese speakers are highly in demand in the American government right now, and very few fluent speakers can be found, because it is so uncommon for Americans to have access to good bilingual education. A long-term study should be completed on the benefits-- both personal and professional-- of bilingualism and multilingualism in American students. One area that is not considered in this review is the overall decline of American public education in relation to the rest of the world. Reviewing the differences between countries that have comprehensive educational systems including bilingual education and the American system will be important for determining the overall cost and benefit of multilingual education.
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