In a neoliberal, globalized world, no country can exist on its ‘own’. In some way or the other every country is interlinked with the rest of the world be it its economy, its culture or politics. Neoliberalism, technology and increased globalization has transformed countries in a manner that was rapid and unprecedented. While some countries adapted themselves to the new ways of trading and conducting relations with other countries, some did not, resulting in the breakdown of their economies as well as their traditional systems of governance and living. The neoliberal policies originated in the developed countries of America and United Kingdom and soon spread to the rest of the world. It was implemented in the Latin American countries vigorously and later taken to other countries in Africa and Southeast Asia. The neoliberal policies had differing outcomes in these countries. In most of the Latin American countries, neoliberal policies led to the privatization of the state held resources as well as natural resources, putting many jobs in jeopardy and social security impossible to maintain. Two decades of neoliberal policies saw the dismantling of the state apparatus and the sale of the natural resources and as a result most of the Latin American countries saw the rise of left wing politics, which brought back nationalization. In the African countries, neoliberalism had mixed results. While the economies of some countries improved, privatization in many led to income inequalities, theft of natural resources as well as revolts within the countries and political instability. The Southeast Asian countries on the other hand remained relatively unaffected compared to their counterparts elsewhere. They embraced neoliberal policies and the governmental structure was such that they could bounce back from the crisis that affected the region and managed to continue their growth. However it is not to say that growth has trickled down to everyone in these countries and globalization had not brought any changes to the politics and culture of the country.
Malaysia is one of the South East Asian countries where neoliberal policies were implemented to a certain degree of success. This is important as Malaysia has been touted as a success story in the development paradigm. It has an almost steady growth of over 7 per cent for 25 years and has also succeeded in eradicating poverty to a large degree. A study of the country would be incomplete without knowing about its history, its economy, its culture, population and its relations with its neighbors and the rest of the world. A country is a sum of its parts and each part contributes to making it what it is. Malaysia is in the Southeast Asian region with its landmass divided by the South China sea into Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. It shares land borders with Vietnam, Brunei and Indonesia and maritime borders with Philippines, Brunei, Singapore, Indonesia and Vietnam. Malaysia has been categorized as a highly open upper middle income economy by the World Bank (Malaysia Overview, 2015). Malaysia is multi-ethnic and multi- religious and this feature of the country plays an important role in the politics, policy as well as decision making of the government. Malaysia is a member of the Commonwealth nations, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Non-Aligned Movement and Asia Pacific Economic Forum.
Background and History
Malaysia is said to have been inhabited for around 40,000 years with the first inhabitants thought to be negritos (Fix 315). The second and third centuries saw the arrival of Indian and Chinese traders who settled down and built ports and coastal towns. The settlement of the Indian and Chinese on the Malay peninsula resulted in the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism in the region and Malay culture still retains some of these influences. Till the Muslims came to the region around the 14th century Peninsular Malaysia was ruled by the Srivijaya Empire from India which was followed by the Majapahit Empire ruling over peninsular as well as the Malaysian Archipelago (Suporno 1979). Although Islam began to spread in the region in the 14th century with the arrival of traders, it was only in the early 15th century that it actually took root in Malaysia. The Malaccan Sultanate founded by Sultan Iskandar Shah is widely regarded to be the first independent state in the Malaysian Peninsula
The Portuguese and the Dutch colonized Malacca in 151 and 1641 respectively. The British came later in 1786 through the East India company which established its offices in the Penang Island. Through the Dutch-Anglo treaty and the takeover of Singapore, the British had direct control over Malacca, Singapore, Penang and Labuan and called it the Straits Settlements. By the turn of the 20th century the federated and unfederated states in the region also accepted British advisers. Together with Sarawak and Sabah, the British had successfully formed a united Malay state out of the different states in the area. the British while developing the newly occupied territories encourages the immigration and settlement of laborers from China and India. This settlement of the Chinese and the Indians created local tensions which reverberates till today.
During WWII, the Japanese invaded and occupied Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo for almost three years. The Japanese occupation saw the rise of ethnic tensions as well as feelings of nationalism among the Malay population (Hock 48). Soon after the defeat of the Japanese by the Allied forces, calls for Independence grew. The British plan to unite all the regions under it and form a single crown colony was met with strong resistance. The formation of the ‘Malayan union’, according to the Malays would weaken the position of the ethnic Malay rulers. Granting of citizenship to the Chinese laborers also irked the Malay who by now had become extremely nationalistic. In 1948 however a Federation of Malaya was formed. It included all British possessions in the region with the exception of Singapore. This lasted for some years as the Malay ruler were granted autonomy under the British rule. The call for independence continued however with the Malaysian communist party launching Guerrilla attacks to chase the British out of their country. Although Independence from the British came in 1957, it wasn’t until the September of 1963 that a Federation of Malay states with Singapore and North Borneo was formed. However racial tensions erupted again, with Singapore separating in 1965. Malaysia also had territorial problems with Indonesia. However by the mid-sixties, Malaysia as it is today was completely formed as a country. The formation of a united Malay state with different ethnic groups however increased the racial tensions among the different groups. The race riots of 1969 were quite deadly and led to the imposition of emergency rule in the country. In a bid to control the race riots, political and civil rights were curtailed and some of these sanctions remain till date. Since the 1970’s, Malaysia has been governed by the National Front Coalition. The race riots also led to the implementation of the New Economic Policy by the then Prime Minister Razak. The main aim of this policy was to increase the economic power of the Bumiputera or the ethnic Malays. Malaysia was originally an agricultural economy but with the new governmental policies it became an open economy and shifted towards an industrial and manufacturing base. The 80’s saw the rapid urbanization of the country and a steady increase in the living standards of the people making Malaysia one of the strongest economies in the region.
Type of Government in Malaysia
Owing to its colonial legacy, Malaysia’s government is modeled after the Westminster parliamentary system. It is also a Federal Constitutional Elective Monarchy. The Malaysian federation is also the only of its kind in the Southeast Asian region. The Monarch or the King as he is known in Malaysia is the head of the state. The King however does not have control of the position for as long as he lives as there is a rotation system in place. The King is also subjected to elections and is elected for a five year term. However the King can only be elected from the nine hereditary rulers of the states. Four other states within the federation do not take part in the selection but have titular governors. The role of the King in the country is largely ceremonial and more so after the changes in the constitution in 1994. He is relegated to picking members and ministers for the upper house. Malaysia is divided into thirteen administrative units or states and three federal territories. The states are divided into districts which are made up of mukims.
The peninsular Malaysia has eleven states and two federal territories while East Malaysia or Malaysian Borneo has two states and one federal territory. The governance of the country is divided between the Federal government and the State government. The Federal territories come directly under the control of the Federal government. The Constitution of Malaysia has clearly demarcated the powers of the federal government and the state governments under the ninth schedule. Although it is a federal state, most of the power rests with the central government and both the constitution and the courts have ruled that the state government can take over any power that is not listed on the ninth schedule. However the ninth schedule covers pretty much everything and the states do not have many powers compared to other federal countries. Land Tenure, Local Government and Islamic Laws are the only areas where the State governments have any say.
The parliament is bicameral and federal and is made up of the lower house, upper house,the senate and the House of Representatives. The House of representatives has 222 members who are elected from single constituencies. They are in power for a maximum term of five years. The senate has 70 members who are elected for three year terms. Out of the 70, 26 members are elected by the 13 states, and the remaining are elected or appointed by the King with the approval of the Prime Minister. Multi Party system is followed in Malaysia and the candidate who wins the most votes is elected the Minister. Barison Nasional is the coalition that has been in power in Malaysia since its Independence. Each of the thirteen states have a unicameral State Legislative Assembly. Each constituency in the state can elect only a single member who then form the assembly. The Chief minister is the head of the state. Where the states have a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister has to be a Malay and he is directly appointed by the hereditary ruler after the Prime Minister's recommendation. The elections for the parliament are held every five years. Voting is not mandatory and the federal and State elections are held at the same time.
The three federal territories different functions. Kuala Lumpur is the capital of the country, Labuan acts as the offshore financial facility and Putrajaya is the administrative capital of the Federal government. These territories come directly under the Federal rule. The executive power is solely held by the cabinet of which the Prime Minister is the head. The party which forms the majority in the parliament takes control over the house of representatives. The Prime Minister has to be a member of this party. Members of the cabinet are chosen from both the upper house and the lower house of the parliament. The Prime minister heads the cabinet as well as the country. The judiciary in the country is independent in theory but has been plagued with questions over the accountability of the courts and appointment of the judges as well as lack of transparency in the process. Owing to its colonial legacy, the legal system is based on the English Common Law. Malaysia also follows the Sharia Law and the regular courts have no say in these matters. Matters of religion and issues with the Muslim majority (family and religion) are handled by the Sharia courts. Apart from the Federal court, there are two high courts, one each for Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. There are also the Court of Appeal and a special court solely for hearing cases against the royal family. Malaysia still has death penalty.
Religion and Culture
Owing to the presence of many ethnic and racial groups, cultures and religions, Malaysia is a multi-confessional country, where the government and laws is a mix of religion and politics. In theory it entails the proportional distribution of political power among the different religious groups. Although the people of Malaysia are free to practice the religion of their choice, the state religion is Islam. The 2010 population and housing census shows that 61.3% of the population practice Islam, 19.8% practice Buddhism, 9.2% Christianity, 6.3% Hinduism and 1.3% practice Confucianism, Taoism and other traditional Chinese religions. 0.7% declared no religion and the remaining 1.4% practiced other religions or did not provide any information (Department of Statistics 2010). The 2010 census also reports that the majority of the population is made up of Malays or the Bumiputera. The government of Malaysia defines this population as being Malays, speaking Malay, following Islam and practicing Malayan culture and tradition. Certain other indigenous groups such as the Khmers and Chams and the natives of Sabah and Sarawak are also given Bumiputera status. Since there are different groups that are accorded the Bumiputera status, different states have their own legislations that decide on who to endow the status. 24.6 per cent of the population is made up of the ethnic Chinese and over 7 percent by the Indian population. The Malays have dominated the political scene in the country since its independence and this has resulted in tension among the different groups. The Chinese have mostly concentrated on trade and commerce.
Although Malaysia is multi-ethnic and multi-religious, the Malays and Islam are given importance and prominence over other groups and religions in the country. The official state language is a standardized form of Malaysian, although over 137 languages are spoken in the country (Ethnologue). The Malaysian cuisine and culture is a mix of the different ethnic and racial groups in the country. Beginning with the practice of the indigenous groups that lived there, to the Malays who came in later, to the Chinese and Indian settlers, the culture is a veritable mix of all these people. There are also Arabic, English and Persian influences in the culture and food practices of the Malaysians. However, the government describes Malay culture as based on the practices of the indigenous people of the country, that includes suitable elements of other cultures, with Islam playing a role. This decision of the government to define Malaysian culture and play a role in it has angered and alienated the other ethnic minorities in the country. The ethnic Chinese and the Indian population have been quite vocal about this exclusiveness of Malaysian culture. This system in Malaysia of favoring the Malays or the Bumiputeras stems from the social contract that exists in the country’s constitution. The social contract in Malaysia is the agreement made by the founding fathers of the country who gave importance to the Malays while granting citizenship to non-Malays. It means that the non-Malays who were granted citizenship were to be in eternal debt to the Malays. This social contract led to the Ketuanan Melayu, also known as Malayan Supremacy. The social contract immediately grants the Malays a preferential treatment over the others in the country. This has caused tension in the country and even political parties have claimed that this has resulted in the alienation of people from other cultures in the country. Malaysia thus is not a secular country as it favors Islam over other religions. The Muslims in Malaysia are Sunnis. This favoring of Islam and Malays over other religious and ethnic groups in the country has created problems in the country. In recent times, it is the threat of terrorism. A paper published by Brookings scholar Liow states that the politicization of Islam in the country has given rise to extremism which goes unchecked by the government. Since some of the leaders actively support extremism, the government has been unable to check and confront the rise of religious extremism in the country, especially the threat of IS (Liow, 2015).
The importance to Islam and the making of it as a state religion started during the rule of Mahathir Mohammad who was the Prime Minister of the country from 1981-2003. He started JAKIM (Malaysian Islamic Development Department). “JAKIM is a government department tasked with defining, to the minuscule detail, what being a Sunni Muslim means in Malaysia, not only in theological terms but also in practical terms, like how to dress and what types of behavior are halal (permissible) or haram (Chin, 2016) .” JAKIM is so powerful in the country that anyone who questions the organization can be booked under charges of terrorism. Another exclusionary practice followed by the Malaysians is their trade marking of the word Allah and other Koranic words. According to the Sunni followers of Islam in Malaysia, the word Allah cannot be used by everyone and this runs contrary to the general Islamic belief of equality. This state sponsored religious division may create problems for the country in the future as in recent times, instances of terrorism and Malaysian citizens joining the Islamic state has increased. At the same time Islam is being given more importance in the country, the other religions are also experiencing a sort of revivalism. Buddhists, Christians and Hindus have all strengthened their beliefs but cannot pose a serious opposition to the State as they are divided amongst themselves ( Lee 402). Religion thus is a conscientious issue in Malaysia and can prove to be a serious problem in the country which cannot be covered under economic progress.
The National Cultural Policy that came into existence that identifies and gives importance only to Malayan culture has irked the rest of the population. Also Malaysia has disputes with Indonesia regarding culture and its national anthem.
Economy
The Malaysian economy can be described as an open, state centric, industrialized market economy (World Bank 2015). Although the state plays an important role in the economy, its position is fast declining as Malaysia gets more integrated into the world economy. As regards to GDP, Malaysia has had one of the most successful growth and economic records in Asia with a relatively steady GDP of 6.5 per cent from 1957 to 2005. The last two years has seen the Malaysian economy getting more competitive than before. While other countries in the region experienced a sluggish growth, Malaysian economy grew by 6 per cent. The economic growth of Malaysia has surpassed that of the developed countries like Australia, France and South Korea. “The economy of Malaysia (GDP PPP) in 2014 was $746.821 billion, the third largest in ASEAN behind more populous Indonesia and Thailand and the 28th largest in the world (Report for select 2014).” the foundations for this economic growth came from the policies of Mahathir Mohammad who in 1991 formed policies and stated that Malaysia would become a developed country by 2020.
The Malaysian economy was not always industrial. It was predominantly agricultural for almost two decades after independence. The 1970’s however saw a transition towards a multi sector industrialized economy ( Osman-Rani et al 1). Steady growth for two decades was interrupted during the Asian Financial crisis in 1997. During the crisis, the real output of the economy fell drastically. Industrial, financial and construction sectors took a heavy hit with asset prices not nearing the pre crisis level prices even till date. The trading of the Ringgit was stopped and was pegged to the US dollar. The country experienced a recession that it had not seen before. Although investor confidence took a hit and FDI took a nosedive owing to the lack of transparency from the government and the banking institutions in Malaysia, the country bounced back from the crisis much easily and earlier than its neighboring countries. By 2006 the economy recovered to the levels of the pre-crisis era with a GDP per capita of $14,800 (Bozyk 164). Although the economy has been healthy and growing at a steady rate, the growth has not trickled down to all levels of the country. There exists economic inequalities between the different ethnic groups in the country. Although the Chinese make up for less than a quarter of the population, they control almost 70 per cent of the market capitalization. The advantage that the Chinese have over the other ethnic groups in the country is that they are part of a larger network of Chinese businesses in the region. These businesses share common familial and cultural ties and are helped in the overseas market. Entry for outsiders in this market is difficult.
A large large part of the economic inequality in the country is due to the cultural and religious policies of the country. Since the Malays are given preference over the rest, the other communities largely keep to themselves and continue to flourish in the businesses and occupations they had been doing for years. there remains mutual doubt and antagonism between the different ethnic and religious groups. Malaysia has become an economic power in spite of these differences only because of a strong government that plays a lesser role in the market but has the upper hand in controlling the other aspects. Although it might sound draconian, like Singapore, a strict government and draconian laws seems to have worked well for the economy. Its physical location and access to shipping routes have given it a special place in international trade. Manufacturing industries is the other sector that has proved to be the backbone of the Malaysian economy. Apart from natural and agricultural products, another big export of Malaysia is petroleum. It was also the largest producer of tin, till cheaper markets were found and the demand for tin fell. Rubber and Palm Oil are other big exports of the country. Economies that are dependent on exports alone are at the mercy of the boom-bust cycle of the world market. Keeping this in mind, the country has been aiming to cut its dependence on the export market as well as the manufacturing sector. However Malaysia still remains the top producer of palm oil in the world. As part of lessening the dependence on the export and manufacturing sector, Malaysia promoted itself heavily on the tourism sector. The ploy worked and now tourism is the third largest income generating sector in the country. Malaysia is known for its rich ecosystem and biodiversity with many kinds of unique flora and fauna. However of late, the tourism industry has come under threat because of two reasons- environmental degradation and terrorism. The environment has taken a hit due to massive tourism as well as the industrialization of the country. Increasing instances of terrorism and the presence of foreign terror organizations in the country has also resulted in many countries issuing travel warnings for their citizens traveling to Malaysia. If both these problems are not given due attention, Malaysian might get a low ranking in the environmental index and also suffer a blow to its tourism industry.
Malaysia, owing to its large and majority Muslim population and its proximity to Indonesia and other Muslim countries has also emerged as one of the main Islamic Banking sectors. This has also resulted in a large inflow of cash that can then be directed towards other investments and economic pursuits. The country has also privatized its defense industry in order to make it more competitive in the world market. this strategy has succeeded and it is one of the most profitable industries in the country. The economic growth of the country has been accompanied by a reduction in poverty levels. What was 49.3 per cent in 1970 has now become 1.0 per cent. Poverty has not been completely done away with however and the income inequality is jarring compared to the other countries in the region as well as other developed countries. the gini coefficient of income inequality for Malaysia was 0.41 in the year 2014. This was more compared to the developed nation of Japan. “Real income of the bottom 40 percent of households increased by an average 6.3 percent per year between 2009 and 2012, compared to 5.2 percent for the average household, suggesting the benefits from growth were being shared (Malaysia Overview 2015).” The diversification of the Malaysian economy has helped it weather the falls in the global market and maintain its steady growth. However being part of the global economy, it is not completely immune to the vagaries of the international market. The continuing fall in the oil prices can lead to an income dip. Although it has reduced its dependence on the commodities market, a large income is still made from the oil industry. The introduction of a Goods and Services Bill has increased the revenue generation that could balance the money lost on oil revenue and taxes. Removal of oil subsidies has also helped. Capital flows into the country can be affected when the US normalizes its monetary policy. Some structural changes to boost competitiveness in the economy has to be made if the country wants to maintain its economic success. The New Economic model launched in 2010 was aimed to turn Malaysia into a high income nation by 2020 and make development sustainable and inclusive. So far the reports have been ambiguous about the sustainability and inclusivity of the growth.
The success of Malaysian economy was rooted in the National Economic Policy put forth in the 70’s. this policy was designed to favor the Malays and bring them out of poverty. The Malaysian development story has been based on exclusivity and inclusivity and has been from the start ethnically motivated. When the country got its independence, the Malays were largely involved in agriculture and fishing and were in poverty. The Chinese were active in business and the Indians were the laborers. however with the NEP, the Malays were encouraged to get into the other sectors to alleviate them from poverty. The program succeeded. The only problem is that the ethnic inclusion of the Malays and the exclusion of the other groups from economic growth has continued. Although the Malays have come out of their poverty of Independence years, the same cannot be said about the other ethnic groups in the country. Economic growth has thus been not equal to everyone in the country due to its political decisions.
Globalization and its effect on Malaysia
Globalization and neoliberal policies have their supporters and dissenters. Globalization has brought prosperity to some parts of the world while certain other parts have seen an increase in the levels of poverty as well as income inequality. When neoliberal policies were implemented, the policy makers took a ‘one-size fits all’ approach as said by Joseph Stieglitz (Stieglitz 32). The same policies were implemented in different countries irrespective of their differences and their political, social, economic and cultural setup. This was the reason that neo liberalism failed spectacularly in some countries, although the push towards privatization has not stopped. Globalization also has effects on the ordinary people and not just the international markets. In travels of a t shirt in a Global economy and the Omnivore’s Dilemma, the authors Petra Frivolity and Michael Pollen trace the travels of a product and the human impact it has on customers and people around the world. At the end, the come to the conclusion that Globalization has not been equal for everyone. The world has also come to such an extent that the earth is unable to give in to the increased demands of the population. Consumption far exceeds demand and there is the added wastage. Another aspect of globalization has been the genetic modification of seeds and food products to satisfy the increased demand. This has resulted in the destruction of the environment. Malaysia is part of a globalized world and hence it cannot be immune to many of the impacts of Globalization.
Since Malaysia opened up and diversified its economy, it has been experiencing a positive economic growth and a decrease in the levels of poverty. There has been an increase in the amount of FDIC's and the GDP has been steady over the last three decades. There have also been other changes to the country since it has opened up its economy. Along with the foreign investments came the culture of the western world which can be now seen in the Malaysian society. Clothes, eating habits and entertainment has changed with the easy availability of internet as well as satellite connections. Globalization has also resulted in the increased movement of people in the country. Growth in the construction and industrial sector needed and attracted migrant labor from Indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines as well as India. Malaysia has also changed its visa programs in such a way that qualified foreigners can stay up to ten years on a work visa. Although the movement of the people has helped in the economic growth of the country, it has not come without its inherent problems. The Bumiputera policy of the government is still in place and this places undue restrictions on the migrant population. Human rights violations and exploitation of foreign labor are quite common in the country. Globalization has also affected the agricultural sector in the country. With the onslaught of cheap imported rice from neighboring countries, Malaysian farmers are finding it difficult to compete in the local market. As a result, people are moving from the agricultural sector towards the industrial sector. Malaysia also has to have a open internet policy because of its foray into the IT service industry. here have been some problems with this too as politicians have realized a bit late that the internet is an effective tool of dissent. Globalization also had its impact on the educational policies of the Malaysian government. “In order to make Malaysia a center of education excellence in the region and to supply the industry with the relevant human resources, the Malaysian government passed five revolutionary pieces of legislations in 1995-6, i.e., the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996, The National Accreditation Board Act 1996, The National Council of Higher Education Act 1996, and the Amendment to the Education Act 1960 and the Universities and University Colleges Act 1965 (Tan 81). This ensured that the formerly rigid rules of the government were relaxed and students were educated in English and other foreign languages to make them more competitive. FDI was also encouraged in the educational sector with many local colleges entering into programs with foreign universities. Another effect globalization had on the Malaysian society is the revivalization of cultural and ethnic identities.
The Environmental and Social cost of Globalization and development in Malaysia
Pollution is a major problem for any country aspiring to be an industrialized, developed nation. Malaysia is not exception. Increased tourism and industrialization has resulted in increasing pollution levels in the country. The air pollution levels due to the industry and manufacturing sector is slated to increase to 112.6 per cent by the year 2020. the electricity generating sector is also another major pollutant. the increased forecasts suggest that Malaysia would find it difficult to attain a sustainable development in its race to become a developed and industrialized nation (Al- Amin 8). the country has also taken a preventive approach towards pollution rather than a curative approach that is in odds with the sustainability of the environment. The social effects of Globalization are also quite telling in the country. Even though Friedman argues that Globalization has made the world flat, it is also true that it has segregated people based on their cultural, ethnic and linguistic identities. Globalization is seen as a threat to many and in order to cope with the flattening effect they revive their old roots. In Malaysia, there has been an increase in the enrollment of students in Chinese and Muslim schools. Globalization has definitely had some positive as well as negative effects on the country. The economic growth has been tremendous but it has come at a cost of ignoring the simmering ethnic and religious tension within the country. It would be difficult to predict the future of the country if this goes unchecked.
Conclusion
In a globalized world, no country can exist on its own. Interlinked trade, dependent economies, the spread of culture, languages, increase technology and communication, movement of people have all ensured that what happens in one part of the world reverberated in another corner. Malaysia is no exception. Globalization led to the transformation of the Malaysian economy from agrarian to an industrialized economy and with it has brought about an increased economic growth and prosperity. The culture and society has also changed and it is nothing new. Beginning with the first stages of globalization, Malaysia has been settled or invaded by the Malays, Muslims, English, Dutch, Portuguese, Chinese and the Indians and this has influenced the culture of the country. The increased migration now to satisfy the growing demand for labor is also changing the culture of the country. Tensions have also surfaced in the country owing to its religious and economic policies. If Malaysia needs a sustainable and inclusive development, it needs to focus on the existing ethnic, racial and cultural differences and form an inclusive policy that favors not just one community but everyone. It also needs to focus on religious extremism which is another offshoot of Globalization.
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