A photo1 of the Roman reproduction of the bronze sculpture, Diskobolos, housed in the Glyptothek in Munich helps us imagine how realistic the sculpture might feel upon viewing. The disc thrower’s right foot is flat on the ground indicating a stable connection with the earth so the thrower can push down on his leg for more power and support. His left leg is lifted at a right angle from the knee with the foot maybe two inches above the ground. His left lower leg and foot are turned in a way which is parallel to the right angle formed from the elbow of his left arm. His left shoulder is lowered as the right arm, curved and at the height of his swing, is about to throw the disc firmly controlled by his hand. His face is turned slightly to look at the disc but he could be just ready to turn his eyes and head to follow the disc’s arc after he throws.
In the above description, how easy it would have been to write, “His left arm and hand form one curved line with the disc as he swings them to the highest level before releasing.” The “movement” of the sculpture is a real phenomenon although the sculpture isn’t altogether lifelike. The sculptor seemed to be thinking about the peak of the movement of the limbs when the athlete used all his power to throw the disk. Other parts of the body were not attended to with such detail on the sculptor. The face offers no emotion or clues to the personality of the sculptor.
The original bronze sculpture of the disk thrower is attributed to the artist, Myron who is thought to have been a student of Agalaidas of Argos.2 In the Fifth Century BCE bronze sculptures of the human body were highly appreciated for the effect the light and shadow had on the contours of muscles which added a life-like effect. 3 The sculptors had advanced to a technique of representing human energy rather than the traditional sculpting of human bodies which only faced forward when in some type of action, such as walking.
Myron is still greatly respected for the important foundational work he accomplished using bronze sculpture to demonstrate the kinetic energy of athletes just at the peak of their action at maximum tension. This was done by curving and/or angling the limbs of the body. The artist designed the sculptures with overlapping triangles in mind.
Meanwhile the older Ionian school of sculpture criticized these sculptures for showing no intellect4 which they expected to be reflected in facial expression. Body movement is indicated by the similar angles of the left arm and the left leg, the curved line of the arm and hand holding the discus far from the body at the top of the swing. But other parts of the sculpture are not so refined which has brought criticism about the static torso and the undefined surface of the side view.5
Notes
1. Roman bronze reduction of Myron's Discobolos. Wikipedia.org (Glyptothek, Munich). Web. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Greek_statue_discus_thrower_2_century_aC.jpg
2. Frost, K. T., Notes on Greek Sculpture An Introduction to the Collection of Casts. Belfast Municipal Art Gallery and Museum Publication 34. Library and Technical Structural Committee 1912. Print. (downloaded as pdf from www.archives.org).
3. Palagia, Olga. Editor. Greek Sculpture Function, Materials, and Techniques in the Archaic and Classical Periods. NYC: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print. p. 227.
4. Frost, K.T. Frost, K. T., Notes on Greek Sculpture An Introduction to the Collection of Casts. Belfast Municipal Art Gallery and Museum Publication 34. Library and Technical Structural Committee 1912. Print. (Downloaded as pdf from www.archives.org).
5. Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986). Print.
Works Cited
Frost, K. T., Notes on Greek Sculpture An Introduction to the Collection of Casts. Belfast Municipal Art Gallery and Museum Publication 34. Library and Technical Structural Committee 1912. Print. (Downloaded as pdf from www.archives.org).
Meier, Christian. Athens A Portrait of the City in Its Golden Age. NY: Metropolitan Books: 1993. Print.
Palagia, Olga. Editor. Greek Sculpture Function, Materials, and Techniques in the Archaic and Classical Periods. NYC: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print.
Roman bronze reduction of Myron's Discobolos. Wikipedia.org (Glyptothek, Munich). Web. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Greek_statue_discus_thrower_2_century_aC.jpg
The Temple of Zeus, Olympia-Greece.org, 19 Aug. 2011. Web.
[http://www.olympia-greece.org/templezeus.html].
Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986). Print.
Sacred Architecture in Classical Greece
Archaic to Classical
1. Introduction
Perhaps it would be safe to say that all the Greek temple architecture is scared because all the design and building of temples in Greece was done with much thoughtful deliberation of the site, the use and the perception of the human eye. The style of the temples was planned considering use of previous structural foundations at the same site. Also the use of marble, columns and any other material already at the site was included in order to save time and money. Proportionality of the different temple components of the architecture is very important to bring harmony to the viewer’s eye as well as meet philosophical goals. We will understand this better by the time we reach the Parthenon at the height of Classical Age.
2. Temple of Aphaia, Aegina Island
With a view of the sea, bordered by forest, and at the highest point on Aegina, the temple’s architectural beauty is enhanced by the surrounding landscape. Aphaia’s temple is an example of the transition of architectural styles between archaic and pre-classical periods and includes even a foreshadowing of the Pericles Age. The temple has a small naos (where the God lives or where the statue of the God sits) of approximately 3 meters in width which may seem confining but overall the feeling is “well-balanced and harmonious.”1 The temple measures 13.77 meters by 28.81 meters with a height of 5.25 meters. The space between the columns measures 5 feet which brought a new openness to the temple from earlier structures.
It is recognized as a transitional architectural design based upon the openness of the building, the thinner columns, the doors which foreshadow Pericles era design, and inside, strikingly, there are two stories of columns along the colonnade. The most controversial (in the 1830’s) characteristic of the temple was the discovery of the use of color, polychromatic architecture, by ancient Greeks.2
3. The Temple of Zeus, Mt. Olympia
Zeus’ Olympian Temple often heralded as the “perfect example of Doric architecture”3 with a peristyle of 6 columns by 13 columns. The column diameter base measures 2.25 meters then the column rises to a height of 10.43 meters. The cella (main body) was divided into three naves or naos which were divided from each other with two doubles rows of seven columns.4 The “Severe Style”5 sculptures were proportional in size to each other, helping the eye follow the harmonious lines and drawing the eye to the highest levels of the temple.6 The grouped sculptures, isolated sculptures and the architecture are “psychologically closely bound together.”7 The organization of the temple and the sculpture groups also gave feeling of awe by contrasting blank space to raise the importance and impressiveness of the divine Zeus.8 More than traditionally designed before the sculptures offer a more humanized version of the immortals for example, Heracles who is part mortal until his great tasks bring him the reward of immortality.9 This also leads through the years to the Classical Age where humanity bursts through traditional boundaries.
4. The Temple of Poseidon, the Erechtheion on Athens Acropolis
The Erechtheion is remarkable for the caryatids and the way the different parts of the building are attached to one another offering the eye several levels of roofs to accommodate the rocky slope on which it was built. Although the roofs of each prostasis and the temple are of different heights yet the whole building taken together; although unusual to the eye at first fits well within the sacred area of the Acropolis because the site is situated rough uneven ground. It was built at the spot Poseidon’s trident landed during a contest with Athena. The architectural design was planned in a way to honor his choice as well as meet the requirements of proportionality and harmony that had become expected by worshippers in Greek temples.
A small porch (prostasis) is attached flush to the southwest corner of the main building leaving the rest of the outside wall 2/3 empty. The roof is held up by the six caryatids (porch of the maidens) 10 acting as columns. Another prostasis located at the northwest corner is edged with columns of the Ionic style. Built from 421 to 406 BC we now see a more intricate design for the altars, shrines, tomb and the well of sea water. His trident landed at the spot during a contest with Athena where his sanctuary was built and the building design was planned in a way to honor his choice as well as meet the requirements of proportionality and harmonious that was expected by worshippers in the temples.
Poseidon’s sanctuary appears to have feminine delicacy, attention to small detail and diminutive size due to the beauty of the caryatids on guard and especially compared to the large and majestic elegance of the Parthenon sitting with it on the Acropolis.
5. Temple of Athena, the Parthenon, Athens Acropolis
The Parthenon is a unique and astonishing feat of architecture which is still respected as a World Heritage site. The careful architectural design was planned based upon the principle of commensurability or the symmetria (symmetry) principle which made the temple a “potential source of philosophical illumination because it made manifest the abstract ideas which formed the substratum of immediate existence.”11 Although simply based on the first even number (2) and the first odd number (3) and their squares (4 and 9)12 the results are spectacular.
The basic dimensions of the foundation (stylobate) and height and the dimensions of the naos were designed using the proportional ratio of 4:9. This proportionality was taken further and included the use of three Pythagorean rectangles and even further into smaller modules.13 Small increments of scaling to the top of the columns enabling less bulky entablature added to seemingly small details in building all added together for the most open and light feeling yet (some accomplished with optical tricks) for the viewer’s eye.
6. Conclusion
The Parthenon is the best example of the best of times in Classical Greece during the rule of Pericles. Its complex design and thoughtful inclusion of the best sculpture is a reflection of this positive era. The Parthenon reflects the new found ability of the citizens to have control over their own lives and, with the introduction of democracy, how the city was ordered. This feeling of control came with an ability to make and implement plans. They felt free to express themselves through art and architecture in energetic ways making a clear break with the traditions which had, until this point only been changing step by step from Archaic to the Classical period. So within the Parthenon the sculptures expressed movement whether it be in the tail of a griffin “swirling” to the corner of a metope or the pulling of the reins of a parading rider on his beautiful horse.14 Here the Greek architects were able to use their genius to make their philosophy part of the Parthenon. As spiritual human beings the formula reflected their significance in a much larger design of the unfathomable workings of the world, the universe and the intellect.
Notes
1. Stierlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
2. Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986) Print.
3. The Temple of Zeus, Olympia-Greece.org, 19 Aug. 2011. Web.
[http://www.olympia-greece.org/templezeus.html].
4. Stierlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
5. Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986) Print.
6. Stierlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
7. Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986) Print.
8. Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986) Print.
9. Cleansing of the Augeias stables ,one of the 12 trials of Heracles. Sikyon.com. 19 Aug. 2011.
Web. [http://www.sikyon.com/Olympia/Art/olymp_eg02.html].
10. Stierlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
11. Hope, Ken. K. Hope Passages on Greek Art. 19 Aug. 2011. Web.
http://faculty.ccc.edu/khope/Greek%20Art%20Annotated%20II.pdf.
12. from Berger, Ernst Basle as quoted in Steirlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
13. Stierlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
14. The New Acropolis Museum. The New York Times Arts (19 June 2009). [http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/06/19/arts/20090620-acropolis-slideshow_index.html].
Works Cited
Cleansing of the Augeias stables ,one of the 12 trials of Heracles. Sikyon.com. 19 Aug. 2011.
Web. [http://www.sikyon.com/Olympia/Art/olymp_eg02.html]
Meier, Christian. Athens A Portrait of the City in Its Golden Age. NY: Metropolitan Books: 1993. Print.
Stierlin, Henri. Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon. LA: Taschen, (2004). Print.
Woodford, Susan. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (1986). Print.
The Classical Moment. Pg. 72 Print.
The Temple of Zeus, Olympia-Greece.org, 19 Aug. 2011. Web.
[http://www.olympia-greece.org/templezeus.html].
The New Acropolis Museum. The New York Times Arts (19 June 2009) Web. [http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/06/19/arts/20090620-acropolis-slideshow_index.html]
