Research problems and research designs (Graded)
Qualitative research design
Researchers and scientists use the qualitative research design to study behaviors and habits of humans. The unique feature of the qualitative research design is its ability to focus on creating an understanding of the data as the analysis continues. Additionally, the qualitative research design asks participants broad and general questions and used words to collect different views of participants. The design helps in generating possible ideas and leads that help the researcher formulate real and testable hypotheses. On the other hand, the qualitative research design generates the applicable method of data collection, scope of the study and indications of the form from the selected methodology, research questions, the topic of the research, and the goal(s) of the study. Therefore, the design is highly associated with surveys, interviews, and case studies because they help reinforce and evaluate findings over a broad area of study (Explorable, 2016).
Design
The qualitative research design accepts different structures and methods because of its flexibility. However, the researcher should take precaution measures when constructing and design methods of data collection despite there not been a standardized structure (Explorable, 2016).
Benefits
The qualitative research design helps in the analysis of hypotheses with complex subjects that require a simple response (yes or no). The method makes it easier to plan and execute such designs and also useful in studies involving budgetary decisions. Second, the qualitative design covers a broader scope that allows the researcher to generate adequate data. The method does not only depend on the sample size but also makes an observation of the whole group and makes a generalized outcome (Explorable, 2016).
Shortcomings
The qualitative research design does not consumes as many times as the quantitative design but still needs careful preparation and planning for more accuracy. On the other hand, it becomes harder to analyze the findings of the qualitative research mathematically but only gives the researcher a general trend. Finally, it becomes hard to replicate a qualitative design because each is unique in its way (Explorable, 2016).
Quantitative research design
The quantitative research design refers to the process of investigating data variables and their relationships using scientific means. The design aims at using mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses related to a natural phenomenon. A quantitative research design must have a measurement because it demonstrates relates data to the observation made. The quantitative research design uses generalization and deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning refers to the process of establishing a theory after reducing concepts to be studied into variables and then gathering evidence to test the applicability of the theory. On the other hand, generalization refers to the extent to which the conclusions made from the collected evidence gathered from a sample represent a larger population. Researchers use either experimental or non-experimental quantitative designs (Sousa, Driessnack & Mendes, 2007).
Design
The selection of a quantitative research design depends on the hypotheses or the research question and the issue under investigation. The design plays a critical role in the nursing profession because it gives nurses new knowledge, solutions to improve health care and introduces new ideas challenging the nursing practice.
Benefits
First, the quantitative research design can easily generalize research findings to the population under investigation. Second, it makes it easier to analyze structural factors that establish the production of inequalities (for example gender inequalities). Additionally, the design can obtain quantitative estimates of the cost and benefit of planned interventions. Finally, the researcher can easily control effects of extraneous variables that end up misleading the study interpretation.
Shortcomings
It becomes impossible to collect different kinds of information using structured data collection instruments, especially when studying sensitive topics. Secondly, the quantitative data collection methods fail to collect information from groups that are hard to access. Finally, the design results in the reduction of the number of data variables that causes loss of the information.
References
Explorable. (2016). Qualitative research design. Explorable. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from
https://explorable.com/qualitative-research-design
Sousa, V. D., Driessnack, M. & Mendes, I. A. (2007). An overview of
research designs relevant to nursing: Part 1: quantitative research designs.Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem, 15(3), 502-507. Retrieved March 10, 2016, from http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-11692007000300022&lng=en&tlng=en.
Research Design for the Significant Nursing Clinical Issue
The research design selected for a specific issue in nursing must adequately answer the research question or test the hypotheses posed by the researcher. The researcher must be familiar with both quantitative and qualitative research designs relevant to the field of nursing before making a selection of the research design. The quantitative research design will have a lot of influence in answering the research question regarding the clinical issue. Most clinical studies use the quantitative research design because it offers a formal, deductive, and objective approach towards solving a specific clinical issue. Many scientific studies in the field of nursing follow the positivist paradigm. The positivist paradigm argues that there exists a single measurable reality. The quantitative research aligns itself to the positivist paradigm; hence, the selection. Additionally, the quantitative research focuses on collecting information concerning the level of the problem experienced in a clinical setting (Keele, 2011).
On the other hand, most clinical studies are aligning towards evidence-based findings. The outcome of the study must produce evidence that the issue exists the research has introduced a specific intervention to deal with the problem. Clinical questions posed by researchers must have evidence from the research design. The research question needs to gather evidence on the significant of a critical issue to the practice of nursing. The critical issue may be a level of pain on patients experiencing chronic diseases. According to Ingham-Broomfield (2015), the nursing sector emphasizes on using evidence-based practice to help nurses make substantial clinical decisions. The main tools used by health clinicians include depression scales or pain, commonly integrated in the clinical practice while conducting research. The quantitative research design helps in establishing the relationship between variables testing these tools through performing the cause and effect test.
The research question allows the researcher to make assumptions and even predict the outcome. The qualitative research design cannot fully achieve objectives of the research where predictions are allowed. Additionally, the quantitative research design allows the researcher and the research to remain independent; hence, the activity of one element does not influence the outcome of the other. For example, in a clinical study to investigate the level of pain in patients with chronic diseases, the quantitative research design will assist gathering information about the level of pain, and the knowledge of the researcher has no influence on the information. On the other hand, the research question aims at applying basic elements of analysis such as statistical analyzes and numbers to investigate the relationship between variable. The qualitative research uses words and narratives to analyze a situation; hence, not appropriate in the study (Keele, 2011). Moreover, the quantitative design leads to a single measurable reality that is easily generalized. The research question aims at determining the cause of a certain critical clinical issue that requires a single evidence to make a general observation.
The quantitative research design consists of different types of designs. These are descriptive, correlation, casual-comparative, and experimental. The response to the research questions requires a scientific approach that is available in the experimental research. The significant of the nursing critical issue can be achieved through a cause-effect analysis that utilizes the quantitative research design. Moreover, the quantitative research design is more effective in making an observation concerning an unknown or new phenomenon. The outcome of the study can also be easily predicted using the research question when utilizing the quantitative research design.
References
Ingham-Broomfield, R. (2015). A nurse’s guide to quantitative research. Australian Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 32 (2), 32-38.
Keele, R. (2011). Nursing research and evidence-based practice: Ten steps to success. Sudbury,
MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Sampling
Sampling takes many forms depending on the objective of the study, the research hypotheses and the research design. The convenience sampling rates as the most commonly used in nursing research. Convenience samples refer to samples that researchers can easily find. For example, when undertaking a survey participant willing to take part in the survey voluntarily represent the convenience sample. A researcher covering a big population may find it challenging to test everybody in the population. The convenience sample techniques act as the most effective in collecting data on this type of study because it is fast, efficient, less costly, and easy to find subjects. Convenience samples have both positive and negative implications on the outcome of the study.
The most appealing issue about the convenience sample is their convenience in collected desired information. The researcher can easily and quickly collect data from the population using the convenience sample and go ahead with the analysis and interpretation. On the other hand, a researcher can easily use the convenience sample technique while conducting a pilot study because the implications of interpreted results and findings have less significance to the study population.
One of the most common negative implications of the convenience sample is its ability to represent the whole population creating biases. Scientific researchers have criticized the effective of the convenience sample technique in representing the entire population terming it as biased (Urbano, 2013). The study may experience more problems with relying on data collected from convenience sample participants because it lacks validity and reliability. For example, when investigating the impact of nurse's lateness and absenteeism on the patient outcome, the same nurses may volunteer to provide the data that might be biased. Moreover, the convenience sample has an implication on the methods used to interpret results because of over-reliance on theoretical results instead of results from the sample. The convenience samples may introduce a systematic bias where the results obtained from the sampled group differs a lot from the theoretical results. Therefore; the researcher ends up using theoretical results to develop the research conclusion.
Second, using the convenience sampling has an implication on the generalization of results. The researcher faces major challenges interpreting data from a large population where convenience sampling technique took place. Additionally, the researcher cannot make an inference of the entire population because the convenience sample does not represent the whole population. The research outcome shows low external validity; hence, future researchers cannot rely on these results. Using the convenience sample limits the process of interpreting and using the findings to develop research conclusions and recommendations. The researcher works with assumptions because the results generated out of using the convenience sample cannot be validated when it comes to representing the entire population.
Finally, the convenience sample introduces high levels of sampling errors that interfere with the overall outcome of the study. Research errors led to wrong results and interpretations. Oppong (2013) argued that the convenience sample technique lacks justification when it comes to representing the true nature of the studied phenomenon. Including many conveniences samples increase the probability of biases, which eventually results in sampling errors. The researcher finds it challenging to interpret results because they do not demonstrate the actual phenomenon on the ground. Additionally, the convenience sample has an implication on the outcome of the study because the researcher must account for any error arising from the data collection procedure and use the error report to develop discussions and recommendations based on assumptions.
References
Oppong, S. H. (2013). The problem of sampling in qualitative research. Asian Journal of
Management Sciences and Education, 2(2), 202-210.
Urbano, R. C. (2013). Using secondary datasets to understand persons with developmental
disabilities and their families. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press
Ethical and legal issues
Introduction
Research involving the participation of human beings raises many legal and ethical concerns that can land the researcher and participants into big problems if not properly addressed. Ethical and legal concerns follow complex regulatory apparatus that contains specific legal provisions regarding matters of informed consent, participation safety, privacy, and confidentiality. Every research must observe proper ethical values by ensuring all activities are morally correct, avoidance of any harm to participants, and maintaining trust and fidelity through good participant/researcher relationship. Some studies ignore to observe ethics and legal concerns leaving subjects more vulnerable to various types of research-related issues.
Vulnerability of subjects
Susan Stinger’s article on “moral choices in end of life for children” demonstrated ethical and legal mistakes made by researchers and physicians that made subjects more vulnerable. Young children are more vulnerable to unethical research findings because they cannot protect their rights and welfare (Fouka and Mantzorou, 2011). The decision-making process involving the treatment of the 11-year-old boy never followed acceptable ethical and legal process. The treatment process went ahead without signing consent with the boy or the parents of the boy, which was a breach of an ethical obligation to confidentiality and privacy. Additionally, the team conducting research about the boys' condition breached the rule of beneficence. They did not request permission from the boy to use him as a case study for a clinical trial during the treatment process (Stinger, 2013). On the other hand, the researchers committed the act of veracity by failing to inform the boy or the family of their intention to use his case for clinical publication. They lacked truthfulness in them.
Beneficence, autonomy, and veracity
Conflicts of interest
A conflict of interest appeared between the medical treatment team and the desire of the health care department to document the procedure. Human research ethical codes claim that the wellbeing has more significance compared to social and scientific interests (Fouka and Mantzorou, 2011). The research team had no ethical right to engage the subject in scientific research for their benefit.
Protecting subjects from harm
The adherence to ethical and legal codes would help protect the subject from harm. First, the team should have requested the boy or any member of the family to sign an informed consent. The informed consent shows the willingness of the participant to take part in the research process. It would help protect the right of the boy from autonomy; hence, protecting any external control or influence from the research team and the physicians. Second, the nursing sector should have intervened to protect the vulnerable subject. Nurses have no right to take advantage of vulnerable groups in the society for the gain of the sector of personal gain. All parties involved should face the full force of the law to prevent similar instances from taking place.
Incidence and prevalence of moral distress in nursing today
The practice of nursing has a big role to play in ensuring nurses never engage in activities that lead to ethical and legal issues in the practice. In most cases, nurses understand the implications of undertaking certain processes but lack powers to stop the incidence. Sources of moral distress are many, and the nurse associations should work towards overcoming these challenges to create more responsible and ethical society. Additionally, the increasing number of moral distress situations renders traditional education practices aimed at preventing the issue ineffective. Each day nurses complain of different instances of moral distress caused by unethical behaviors propagated by seniors in the health care sector (Epstein & Delgado, 20). The prevalence of moral distress is likely to increase in the future with the increasing cases of conflicts of interests between the nursing group and the health scientific research group.
References
Epstein, E.G., & Delgado, S., (2010, Sept 30). Understanding and Addressing Moral
Distress. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing Vol. 15, No. 3, Manuscript 1.
Fouka, G., and Mantzorou, M. (2011). What are the major ethical issues in conducting research?
In there a conflict between the research ethics and nature of nursing? Health Science Journal, 5(1), 3-14.
Stringer, S. (2013). Moral choices in end of life care for children. Center Nursing Practice,
12(7), 27- 32
