Introduction
Old age marks the end of the human life cycle and involves surpassing or nearing the set life expectancy of people. Most states have set the life expectancy of persons to be between 60 and 65 years, and this marks the termination of many life cycles. At this particular stage, we have reduced regenerative abilities as opposed to young people. Our bodies have the capacity to dispose and destroy worn out cells at a faster rate, but this is not the case in the old age where all life processes have ultimately slowed down. Bronfenbrenner, suggests that our environment has a direct impact on our lives regardless of the stage in life (Berk 2014). Therefore, at old age, despite the reduced capabilities that come with the life stage, we still interact with our environment. Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory provides the various divisions of our environment and how we interact with them even at old age.
Two physical characteristics of old age
The most shared and prevalent of the physical changes during the old age occurs in the bones and joints. This results in a loss of height by an approximate 2 inches by age 80. Due to weak, thinned and shrunk bones and joints, an individual develops a stooping posture. Apart from weak bones, the joints are more susceptible to diseases like osteoporosis. The digestive tract is also affected in the old age where an individual’s track and its processes are reduced (White, Hayes and Livesey 2016). Therefore, there is difficulty in swallowing, inability to consume the required amounts, and conditions like constipation and bleeding.
Stage-Crisis view
Daniel Levinson is known for his contributions in behavioral and social sciences which are particularly denoted by his theory of stage-crisis view. This is a theory of adult development which was inspired by Erik Erikson. Levinson wanted to create an even broader approach that would include all the neglected aspects of adulthood ranging from pre-adulthood stages to the late adulthood. It also brings a lot of the issues of old age into the light, focusing specifically on late adulthood transition to the late adulthood stage. An individual begins to transition to late adulthood between 60 and 65 years where he or she begins to experience the physical decline. Physical decline is marked with the increased prevalence of disease and reduced capabilities (Hoffnung 2013). It is at the transition that an individual experiences life crisis when he or she is not prepared for old age. Seeing that the youthfulness is disappearing leaving only an old man is traumatic for some people but soon passes when they come to terms with it.
Daniel Levinson asserts that an individual’s task at the late adulthood stage is to reflect on how one has lived. He or she has to appreciate his successes, failures and most important of all, the other experiences. At the late adulthood stage that begins at 60 to 85 years, one has to give up his or her formal authority, and this is usually at the place of work. According to Daniel Levinson, if this power is not released at this stage, the individual risks to disconnect with his generation and indulge in a conflict with the generation already at middle adulthood (Hoffnung 2013). A person at late adulthood, commonly termed as old age is where an individual gives back to the community. He or she indulges in activities of self-innovations and benefits the society. This strikes a balance between the community and the individual.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory
The ecological systems theory provides a fundamental framework that various psychologists have used in the study of individual’s relationships in the context of the environment (society). Bronfenbrenner asserts that the environment can be divided into five unique systems, namely the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem (Neal and Neal 2013: p. 723). The microsystem is the one that we interact with more personally and more directly. This system has a direct influence on one’s life regardless of the life stage. At old age, they include all those elements that we come into contact with every day. They include our families, religious institutions, the neighbors, and peers. These elements like our families impact our lives every day for they take care of us during this stage of difficulties and incapability thus a direct impact on how we progress.
The mesosystem, on the other hand, is an inclination of the interactions between microsystems. As mentioned earlier, we interact with the Microsystems directly, and they have an impact on our lives (Kittrel 1998: p. 105). However, when these systems begin to interact, they form a mesosystem. For example, when an old man’s doctor interacts with his or her family, a mesosystem is generated. These kinds of systems have an impact on the individual’s life even though it is not direct. The exosystem, on the other hand, is a social setting where an individual lacks active role or influence. The person is not directly involved in the setting, but he still impacts it. An example of an exosystem at old age is when an old person’s son or daughter gets married and moves out to start his or her family. The fact that the old person fails to see the child impacts his emotional health to a significant degree.
The macrosystem is the fourth level of systems in our environment, and it focuses on the cultural inclinations in our surrounding. These are the cultures that we live in and affect. Some of these systems of cultures that exist in our environment include politics, our cultures, and the economy. It might result in a positive or negative influence on the development of a person. For instance, an old man growing in a third-world country may lack adequate care as opposed to an old man located in the United States (Leonard 2011: p. 990). This is because of the high variance concerning economies between the two worlds. The fifth system is the chronosystem which points to the environment and social events in one’s life that led to transition of an individual’s life course. Some socio-historical events that may lead to transition include divorce. A man who went through a divorce must have encountered a transition in life. This is because of the trauma the divorce must have posed for him. Similarly, a child must have experienced transition when his parents divorced. Such a child must still remember this divorce even at old age for it led to changes in his or her life (Shen-Miller et al., 2013: 500).
Conclusion
Old age is a significant stage in the human life cycle and everyone who surpasses the life expectancy is bound to go through it. It is demanding as evidenced in Daniel’s theory of stage-crisis view. On the same note, we interact with our environment at various levels known as systems. Our personal relationships up to how we relate to the whole society and nation can be described by these systems which include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem.
References
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HOFFNUNG, M. (2013). Lifespan development: a chronological approach. Milton, Qld, John Wiley and Sons Australia.
Kittrell, D 1998, 'A Comparison of the Evolution of Men's and Women's Dreams in Daniel Levinson's Theory of Adult Development', Journal Of Adult Development, 5, 2, p. 105.
Leonard, J 2011, 'Using Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory to Understand Community Partnerships: A Historical Case Study of One Urban High School', Urban Education, 46, 5, pp. 987-1010.
Neal, J, & Neal, Z 2013, 'Nested or Networked? Future Directions for Ecological Systems Theory', Social Development, 22, 4, pp. 722-737.
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Shen-Miller, D, Isacco, A, Davies, J, Jean, M, & Phan, J 2013, 'The Men's Center Approach: Ecological Interventions for College Men's Health', Journal Of Counseling & Development, 91, 4, pp. 499-507.
WHITE, F. A., HAYES, B. K., & LIVESEY, D. J. (2016). Developmental psychology: from infancy to adulthood.
