PROFESSORINSTITUTION
Operant Conditioning 2
Introduction
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where a subject’s behavior is modified through antecedents and consequences. The concept was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov who was studying the digestive system of dogs. The theory of behaviorism was introduced by John B. Watson. Later, B.F. Skinner helped define the mechanics of behaviorism through his work. Over the years behaviorism has grown in popularity and scope. Research has shaped the practice of behaviorism as it has been adapted by many disciplines (education, psychology). The most popular use of Behavioral Therapy today is found in treating children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
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Ivan Pavlov was the first scientist to observe the connection between a behavior and response to the introduction of an antecedent. During the 1890’s, he was in fact studying the digestive system of dogs. He was investigating the connection of salivation and digestion of food. He found thought that his test subjects, the dogs, would begin to salivate when he simply entered the room empty handed, no food. Pavlov became curious about this phenomenon and decided to investigate it further. Pavlov coupled the ringing of a bell with the introduction of food. The dogs would salivate. Over time he stopped bringing food but when he rang the bell the dogs would begin to salivate. The dogs were associating the sound of the bell with food. This observation was coined the term, classic conditioning (Cherry 2005).
Edward Thorndike picked up the study of classic conditioning with his Law of Effect. The Law of Effect stated that when a response is followed with a satisfactory outcome are more likely to occur again and in contrast, a response that is followed by an unsatisfactory outcome were less likely to occur (McCleod 2007) He designed an experiment using a “puzzle-box” in which he would place a cat. The cat had to figure the way out of the box. A piece of fish was placed outside the box as incentive. Thorndike performed this experiment with thousands of cats. He noted that the amount of time to escape from the box decreased with each cat.
John Watson was a psychology major who disagreed with consciousness and the study of it. Consciousness was not concrete, nor observable but people’s actions were observable and concrete. He proposed a more objective and scientific study of psychology through “behaviorism” He proposed that psychology was the study of people’s actions and the ability to control those actions (Watson 1999). Watson began his studies with animals but moved onto to human subjects. He theorized that children all had three emotional reactions: fear, love and anger. He constructed an experiment where he produced fear in a child by presenting him with a
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rat that was accompanied by a loud, sudden noise. This behavior was then conditioned and generalized to all white, furry objects. This was known as the “Little Albert Experiment” (Watson).
B.F. Skinner is probably the most famous of all Behaviorists. He is responsible for formalizing the theory. Skinner recognized that humans do possess a mind and thought, but that these could not be effectively measured as behavior could. Skinner was responsible for the development of operant conditioning as we know it today. He proposed that behavior could be
changed through operant conditioning. The operants were: neutral operants, positive reinforcement and punishment. Skinner designed an experiment called the “skinner-box”. A rat was placed in a box with a lever. At first, the rat received food when he pressed the lever (positive reinforcement). The next part of the experiment was no food when the lever was pressed but instead an electric shock was given (punishment). Lastly, no food and no shock came when the lever was pressed. The rat quickly figured this out and stopped (extinction). Skinner expanded and applied his theories to humans. Humans make decisions based on the consequences of the behavior resulting from the decision. For example, a person changed jobs for a better paying one. The better pay is the positive reinforce, the change of positions is the observable behavior. Many behaviorists have emerged over the course of the twentieth century. They agree with Skinner’s theory that behavior is measurable and observable therefore scientific in nature. Thought processes cannot be observed therefore not in the scientific realm. Although new theories of cognitive development and functioning grew in popularity during the 20th century, behavioral theory is still practiced in many disciplines.
Over the years these basics of operant conditioning have evolved into the program of behavior modification, or more popularly, applied behavior analysis. The components described
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Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant outcome. In this case, it Skinner removed the electric shock when the lever was depressed. Punishment also comes in the positive and negative varieties. Positive punishment is when an unfavorable outcome is presented, like when you get a speeding ticket. Negative punishment is the removal of a favorable outcome. Little Johnny misbehaves so mom takes away his favorite toy.
Other methods used in operant conditioning include shaping, in which the subject begins with a simple task to receive the reinforcer. The tasks then begin to become more complex or difficult to complete in order to receive the same reinforcer. Extinction is when all reinforcement is withheld. The rat presses the lever, but nothing happens, no food, no shock. Eventually the rat stops pressing the lever. Generalization is applying a behavior to a variety of situations. A dog who does a trick for his master gets a treat. The dog performs the same trick with a new person or in a different environment receives a treat. Discrimination, the subject learns that the behavior will only occur in one situation. The rat learns that when he presses the small lever he will get food, but when he hits the second lever nothing happens so he stops hitting it.
Modern behavior specialists have taken this theory to a whole new level so that the can achieve specific, appropriate results in changing behavior. The behaviorist will look for three things in an observation: antecedent, behavior, consequences. They will observe a human subject for a determined amount of time in a particular situation. The behavior that is being observed is clearly defined. The environment and with who the behavior occurs is tracked (antecedent). The outcomes of the behavior are noted (consequences). A scenario in which this observation occurs
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might be a mother is having difficulty with her child who has Autism Spectrum Disorder. When the child is asked to stop watching television and get ready for bed, the child screams and cries. The mother firmly tells the child she must get ready for bed and physically drags her to the bedroom. The antecedent in this scene is the watching of television. The behavior is screaming and crying. The consequence is being forced to go get ready for bed.
Sometimes it is an absence of an appropriate behavior that is observed. An autistic student arrives at school. The teacher says good morning, but the student avoids eye contact, says nothing and heads straight for her seat. The teacher says good morning again, no response again. The teacher ignores the student. The antecedent is the teacher greeting the child. The missing behavior is a reciprocal greeting. The consequence is the child is ignored or left alone.
Today’s behaviorists try to create good behaviors or change bad behaviors. They observe closely, hypothesize, implement strategies and track them closely by collecting data. They often interview family members or professionals that are also involved with the client so that they have a clear understanding of the client, behaviors, environments and reinforcers. They then write a plan that includes the desired behavior, when and where to practice this new behavior, which reinforce to use. They then build upon the plan to include generalization of the newly acquired behavior, Sometime a new behavior might be too complex to tackle at once so the plan will outline how to shape emerging behavior until it is accomplished at the desired level of complexity. Extinguishing behavior has a smaller role in modern operant conditioning, ignoring behaviors or not reinforcing them does not have the outcomes of reinforcing behavior.
In modern Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA), the belief that teaching a new positive behavior to replace a maladaptive behavior is generally more successful than trying to eliminate
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that behavior. Writing a very specific goal for behavior is critical so that the exact behavior to be taught can be measured for success. For the student who enters class without a greeting, an appropriate behavioral goal would be, “Mary will say ‘hello’.” The behavior is observable and measurable. Either Mary says “hello” or she doesn’t.
The behavioral professional will also specify the situation in which the behavior will occur. Mary cannot be expected to say “hello” to everyone, everywhere. That is not realistic nor measurable. Someone would have to be with Mary all day make note of when she states “hello”. Instead, the place and time are clearly stated, “upon arrival in the classroom”.
Lastly, an appropriate reinforce is required. As we teach the new behavior, Mary will not be too interested if there is nothing in it for her. As humans, we want something in return for doing what is expected of us. Mary’s parents and teacher know that Mary likes Skittles. The Skittles will act as the positive reinforce for saying “hello”. Mary walks in, the teacher says “Good morning”, displays the Skittles, Mary says “hello”, and the teacher gives Mary a few Skittles.
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Another skills employed by ABA professionals is the use of prompts. Prompts as described by MacDuff, et al. are artificial stimuli presented before or after the true stimuli that will eventually cue the learner to perform the expected behavior. There are many types of prompts that can be used. Gestural is when the behaviorist uses a hand or body movement to make known that the behavior will soon be expected. Visual prompts are often a picture card with a symbol or word, and verbal prompts in which the behaviorist says something to warn the learner. In Mary’s greeting scenario, a gestural prompt the teacher might use is extending her hand when Mary is still twenty feet away. A visual prompt might be a picture card with “Hello” written on it for Mary to see. A verbal prompt might be the teacher saying, “Mary is here”, then she extends her hand and issues the greeting.
Although operant conditioning has given way to cognitive development theories in psychology it is widely used in mental health care and education. Applied Behavior Analysis is a true application of science. Behavior modification is working wonders with people with Autism and intellectual or behavioral disabilities. These populations have responded very well to the behavior therapy, consistently showing growth and appropriate behavior in a variety of skill sets: self-injurious behavior; maladaptive behaviors; social skills; communication and academic skills.
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References
Cherry, K.A. (2005). Classical conditioning. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classcond.htm
MacDuff, Gregory, Krantz, Patricia, McClannahan, Lynn Retrieved from
http://dddc.rutgers.edu/pdf/prompting.pdf
McLeod, S. A. (2007). Edward Thorndike. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html
Miltenberger, Raymond (2012). Behavior modification: Principles and procedures. Belmont,
CA, Wadsworth Cenage Learning.
Watson, Emily (1999). John B. Watson. Retrieved from
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/watson.htm
