Origins of sociological inquiry: Industrial revolution and emergence of the scientific approach
Introduction
The field of sociology came into its own when scientific methods started getting systematically employed by social philosophers in nineteenth century Europe. This paper discusses the impact of industrial revolution on the development of social sciences as a discipline, the assumptions that underlie scientific methods employed by sociologists, and whether the inherent nature of social science research lends itself to objectivity. It also highlights the implications and consequences of social science research.
The birth of Sociology
The origin of Sociology, as a formal field of study is relatively recent. Historically, the discourse on social behavior was the preserve of social philosophers. However, the discipline of sociology as a formal field of study developed in nineteenth century Europe. The two broad influences that catalyzed this evolution include the rapid advances in understanding of natural sciences and the social upheavals that were characteristic of that period. The industrial revolution heralded a radical alteration in the social fabric fuelled by the introduction of new technologies and development of new ways of living. (Goldstone, 1982) New paradigms of social conflict emerged as the traditionally rural and stable societies confronted a transformation into urbanized, industrialized and inherently chaotic societies. New phenomenon like migration of people to cities, breaking down of traditional family structure and support systems, congestion and inappropriate housing in cities and new forms of poverty and crime in cities, all contributed to this change. (Thio, 1997)
Simultaneously, the political and religious order began to be shaken with people began questioning the legitimacy of traditional monarchies and power wielded by churches. The demand for more individual freedom was in part driven by the breakthroughs in physical sciences which were increasingly explaining and controlling the physical world. It was only natural for social philosophers to think of applying scientific methods as a tool to understand changing dynamics in the industrial society.
Assumptions of the scientific methods
The field of sociology approaches the study of human society in different ways. The macro view looks at the larger social phenomenon, while the micro view focuses on immediate social situation. These views have shaped the development of theoretical perspectives, each with its own set of assumptions about the inherent nature of the society. There are three widely acknowledged theoretical perspectives: the functionalist and conflict perspective provide a macro view while symbolic interactionist perspective offers a micro view.
Functionalist perspective
The functionalist perspective postulates that integral components of the society, like the family system, education system or the state, all are interdependent upon each other in myriad ways with the objective to serve a specific function for the well being of the society. This inherent inter dependence is responsible for creating a social order. In case of disruption of social order, the integral parts adapt in a manner that creates a new social order. According to functionalists, the social order is maintained by a process called social consensus in which integral parts of the society agree and cooperate in the larger interests of a general good. (Asch, 1955)
Conflict perspective
In contrast to the functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective believes societies as ever changing and characterized by conflict. The perspectives tend to perceive social change as beneficial and argue against the status quo. They assume an unjust world where the mightier forcibly impose order on the weaker. The feminist theory is an eminent example of a conflict perspective which highlights the gender imbalance manifest in the society by holding, for example, the view that women in most social spheres have a lower standing than men, e.g, less freedom of choice, less power, less economic incentives or even less respect.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
As against the functional and conflict perspectives, the symbolic interactionist perspective is a more detailed view point that focuses on details of a specific situation and the dynamics of interaction in a given situation. According to this view these countless interactions at the micro level is what constitutes a society. e.g., this perspective believes that a person’s response to another person’s action is not determined by the action per se but also on the subjective interpretation of the action. The theory essentially believes that individuals assign symbolic meanings to day to day interactions and these meanings are influenced by their value systems and beliefs. The symbol could be anything like a word, sound, gesture or body language that is a pointer to something much more than just itself.
The objective of social research is not merely to validate the existing theories but also to further our understanding of the social dynamics in an ever evolving world. Thus sociological knowledge is dependent on social research involving methods like surveys, observation studies and data analysis. Since many of these activities endeavor to collect information on opinions, beliefs and evaluate behaviors in a social context. By employing high level of methodological rigor, meticulously performed research can yield insights and answers that closely capture the phenomenon under study in reality. However, by their very nature, the techniques and methodology of social research use a mixture of methods including qualitative methods and quantitative analysis. It is therefore, that sociological research is prone to bias and subjectivity. However, it is important to acknowledge these inherent biases and be aware of their presence while interpreting the findings. Social research has enormous potential to enrich society and individual by providing a framework to guide our daily actions and thought processes. Like all other phenomenon, the insights have the potential for use as well as misuse. Therefore, sociologists should undertake investigations after a careful consideration of the potential impact of the findings. Correctly employed, the field of sociology can play a major role in adapting to the cultural flux that is characteristic of the global village.
References
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and Social Pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31-35. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31
Goldstone, J. A. (1982). The Comparative and Historical Study of Revolutions. Annual Review of Sociology, 8, 187-207. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.001155
Thio, A. (1997). The essence of social life. In Sociology: A brief introduction (3rd ed., pp. 4-24). New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
