Critical Thinking
Psychology by Saundra K. Ciccarelli is certainly not one of those disappointing textbooks that lack conviction and are uninspired. The inclusion of this textbook in coursework will undoubtedly ensure that students have a tremendous enlightening learning experience. Moreover, concepts have been simplified to an introductory level, which makes the content easy to understand and interesting for the reader. Unlike dry and rushed textbooks, keywords have been defined on the side of the textbook, which has proven to be helpful when studying for a test. Ciccarelli’s book is ingenious and insightful, and not only do her topics come to life, but upon closer inspection, it is not hard to see that these topics also relate to our everyday lives and the society.
In Chapter 1, Ciccarelli defines psychology as a scientific way of understanding the human mind and why people behave the way they do. He also adds that psychology can also include the study of the animal mind and behaviors. According to Ciccarelli, there are four goals, namely describing what a behavior actually is, explaining why the behavior is occurring and the factors contributing to it, predicting what factors might cause the behavior to occur in the future, and controlling the behavior, i.e. trying to change it. Ciccarelli mention several older and modern perspectives of psychology. These include: Psychodynamic perspective based on Freud’s theory, Behavioral perspective based on the works of John B, Watson and B. F. Skinner, Humanistic perspective based on the views of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, Cognitive perspective based on the works of the Gestalt psychologists, Sociocultural perspective based on the concepts of Lev Vygotsky, and the Evolutionary perspective based on the works of Charles Darwin. Ciccarelli mentions three types of psychological professionals, namely psychologists, experts in psychology, and specifically study the mind and behavior; psychiatrists, are medical professionals who help diagnose and treat mental illnesses, and psychiatric social workers, who work to improve the quality of life of the mentally ill. Ciccarelli names several methods typically used in psychology for research. The scientific method, the method used to conduct scientific research to fulfill the goals of psychology. There are four steps when using the scientific method, firstly a testable hypothesis is established, secondly a study is conceived and data is collected, thirdly data is examined and a conclusion is reached, and fourthly the findings are reported. There are four descriptive methods. In Naturalistic Observation, subjects are observed in their actual environments. It is more controlled, provides a realistic picture of behavior, but observers can become biased and natural settings are always unique. In Laboratory Observation, subjects are observed in a laboratory setting. It makes it possible to observe animals and humans who cannot be observed in natural settings and use equipment that cannot be used there, but the behavior can be more artificial than natural. In Case Studies, the focus is on the detailed study of a single subject. It provides a tremendous amount of detail and is suitable to obtain certain kinds of information, but the results cannot really be applied to similar people and the observer can become biased, as in Naturalistic Observation. In Surveys, information is gathered about subjects through a questionnaire, survey, or test. Correlation has been described in the chapter as a method of finding relationships by measuring the relationship between two or more variables. The Experiment Method has been described as a method in which one variable is manipulated to determine if changes in the variable will cause another variable to change too.
In Chapter 2, Ciccarelli discusses the nervous system; he describes neurons as the messengers of the body since they specialize in transmitting information throughout the body. Neurons have branches known as dendrites that transmit neural signals to the soma, the cell body, which transmits the neural signals to the axon, a fiber that carries the neural signals to the rest of the cells. Glial cells function to provide nutrition and support neurons, and clear out debris of dead neurons, communicate with neurons and other glial cells, and insulate neurons. There are three types of neurons, namely sensory neurons, which send neural signals to the brain from the sensory receptors; motor neurons, which send neural signals to the glands or muscles from the brain; and interneurons neurons, which send neural signals between motor neurons and sensory neurons. Neural impulses are electrical impulses that cause neurotransmitters to be released as the travel through the axon. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that boost, carry and modulate signals between neurons allowing them to communicate. The Central Nervous System consists of the brain, the core, and the spinal cord, containing the neurons, while the Peripheral Nervous System consists of the autonomic nervous system, which controls the body’s automatic functions, and the somatic nervous system, which controls the body’s voluntary muscles. Structures in hindbrain include the medulla, which controls the body’s life sustaining functions, the pons, which coordinates the movements of the body’s left and right side, reticular formation, which keeps the body aroused and alert, and the cerebellum, which controls the body’s involuntary movements, while the structures under the cortex include thalamus, which processes sensory information, hypothalamus, which forms permanent declarative memories, and the amygdale, which are responsible for memory of fear and fear responses.
In Chapter 3, Ciccarelli distinguishes sensation, as the process to seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling, and tasting as a result of the transmission of neural signals from the sensory organs to the brain, and perception, as the process of experiencing the external world. Humans have five senses. The sense of sight is associated with the eyes, which contains photoreceptors that allow the eyes to see images of light. The sense of hearing is associated with the ears, which contain mechanoreceptors to convert movement into electrical nerve pulses so that sound can be perceived. The sense of taste is associated with the tongue, which contains taste receptor cells that detect tastes. The sense of smell is associated with the nose, which contain olfactory receptors that detect odors and scents. The sense of touch is associated with the skin, which contains neural receptors that allow us to feel.
In Chapter 4, Ciccarelli defines conscious as state of being aware of our unique environment, feelings, sensations, and thoughts. Waking consciousness is when we are awake, alert, and aware of everything around us, and altered states of consciousness occurs when the pattern or quality of mental activity shifts causing the state of consciousness to vary. Altered states of consciousness include achieving a meditative state, daydreaming, or being hypnotized. Sleep is a biological rhythm of the human body and it must go through it on a daily basis. A circadian rhythm is the cycle because of which people sleep for several hours and then wake up every single day, and the hypothalamus in the brain controls this cycle. Not sleeping for at least 7 to 9 hours in a day can serious alter the body and mental functions. There are two stages of sleep, REM (rapid eye movement sleep), active sleep where dreaming takes place, and non-REM sleep, deeper sleep where dreaming rarely takes place. The lack of REM sleep can lead to mental illness and paranoia. The three sleep disorders named in the chapter include insomnia, the inability to sleep, sleep apnea, inability to breathe through the nose while sleeping leading to loud snoring, and narcolepsy, going into the REM sleep stage near wake hours. Dreams have been described as everything that we visibly experience during sleep. According Freud’s theory we dream to fulfill wishes we cannot fulfill in waking life. According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, we dream based on random memories, or on information accessed during the waking hours. Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the functioning of the brain. Addiction is the abuse of psychoactive drugs, and seeking these drugs at a chronic level. There are four classes of psychoactive drugs, namely stimulants that increase the brain’s functioning, depressants that sedate the brain, narcotics that produce euphoria and relieve pain, and hallucinogens that alter the way the brain interprets sensations.
Thus, Saundra K. Ciccarelli’s Psychology practically contains some very interesting chapters that have a close connection to life. For instance, Chapter 1 shows how psychology helps in understanding the behavior of people, and we can use to become better communicators, improve our leadership skills and memory, make wiser decisions in life, etc. Chapter 2 contains everything we need to know about the nervous system and brain. In Chapter 3, the description of the senses are particularly useful to help us understand how we are able to see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. Chapter 4 teaches us how important it is for us to sleep, and the consequences of not sleeping enough.
Works Cited
Ciccarelli, S., and J. White. Psychology. 3. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2012. Print.
