Introduction
This historiographical essay relies on the works of six authors to discuss the nature of guerrilla warfare and its implications on political, social and economic stabilities of the nations in Latin America. The articles address aspects of terror acts carried out by both insurgents and regimes to engage each other. The historiographical essay is also important in using historical accounts from articles to discuss the factors that contributed to success of revolutionary wars in nations such as Cuba and Nicaragua. The approach taken by the essay is chronologically reviewing by year of publication, what different authors wrote on the historical accounts of insurgency in Latin America. The issues addressed include the factors that contributed to successful insurgency and different motives of revolutionists such as Fidel Castro and Sendero.
Social and cultural history of guerrillas in Latin America
Guerrillas in Latin America were generated by acts of corrupt political dictatorship that deprived nations their democracies and made people suffer from poverty and limited freedom. Revolutionists such as Fidel Castro realized the need to liberate their nation to improve socio-economic conditions by building schools, health centers, and affordable housing. The success of the Cuban revolution inspired emergence and spread of guerilla warfare in the rest of Latin America that caused loss of lives in the rural areas targeted for recruitment by insurgents. However, guerrillas are linked to the economic crisis in Latin America due to a domestic imbalance in investments in social and economic reforms. Guerrilla warfare has also been linked to the protection of drug traffickers and growers like the case of Peru, thereby posing a major threat to the security of nations where the populations were forced to join the insurgents. The insurgency in Latin America relied on violent and at times non-violent resistance with the aim of overthrowing the regimes believed to be incapable of responding to social, political and economic reforms. With hit and run plans and choosing strategic locations for their attacks, guerrillas in nations such as Cuba and Nicaragua managed to defeat government armies successfully while Bolivia’s and Venezuela’s guerrillas were easily subdued due to the influence of government allies.
Why Peasants Rebel: The Case of Peru's Sendero Luminoso
The article written by Cynthia McClintock addressed the reason why peasants rebelled in Peru. Through her article McClintock clearly explains the event that led to rebellion by peasants and the consequences that faced those who failed to support the revolutionary intentions of Sendero. The article by Cynthia is important since it explains effects agrarian policies established by the Peruvian regime had on peasants and the reasons that contributed to support for the insurgency in Peru. Land reforms in Peru did not go well with subsistence peasants who could not access opportunity to engage in farming in the fertile highlands. The influence of business people and politicians on land reforms caused peasants to rebel. Smallholder peasants took an active role in the rebellion with their actions intended to make the government review its agricultural policies. University students from peasants’ families were recruited and involved in terrorist attacks on government forces and institutions. Among the issues raised by peasants included concern for equity in access to social amenities such as housing, health, and education. The fact that the peasants were isolated and lived in cohesive villages meant that it was easier to radicalize them. However, the outcomes of such radicalization were deaths of over 600 peasants from 1980 to 1983 in the region. The article by McClintock is unique in the sense that it describes the origin of the revolutionary war in Peru. McClintock explains that Sendero had managed to gain the support of the subsistence peasants in the southern highlands of Ayacucho, who felt that the agrarian policies were not working for them. The peasants wanted an alternative for of income that would improve their economic status. McClintock argues that the Peruvian revolution was the first of its kind in Peru and led to the disruption of daily life in the capital by threatening the order of the society. McClintock further explains that recruitment of young university students was also important since it paved the way for a working alliance that included peasants, Sendero’s men, and the university students. McClintock additionally discussed the fact that the government used counterinsurgency measures in Ayacucho where most of the peasants supporting Sendero were located with the place being declared an emergency zone. Counterinsurgency was followed with dropping of bombs, torturing of those captured and rewarding people who provided intelligence information.
Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Latin America, 1960-1980
The next article written by Richard Weitz in 1986 addresses the insurgency and counterinsurgency actions in Latin America in 1960-1980. According to Weitz, Guerilla warfare was a matter of revolutionary versus counter-revolutionary wars with incumbent regimes involved in terror acts and use of death squads to create fear among the guerrillas. Innocent people were relocated, and others jailed to prevent guerrillas from recruiting new insurgents. Weitz argued that those who surrendered to the government forces were shot on the spot while those jailed were continuously tortured to force out intelligent information from them. Weitz explained the factors that affected insurgents operations in four nations including Nicaragua, Cuba, Bolivia and Venezuela. He also points out that ethnic cleavages, economic condition, geographical location and leadership structure of the insurgent played a role in boosting activities of the insurgents. The main reasons for the rise of revolutionary wars according to Weitz are that rural populations felt they need to have democracy as well as equality and justice they had were denied by the regimes. The article by Weitz is unique in the sense that it clearly points put the factors that played a major role in helping revolutionaries successfully carry out their guerrilla tactics. Weitz also explains the conditions in four nations in the Latin America and the way the insurgents operated in the nations. The article by Weitz is similar to the one by McClintock since they all address the fact that the rural populations were the ones who felt the regime was oppressive and that they needed to use revolution to create the needed change. Weitz and McClintock's articles also ascertain the fact that insurgents used rural areas to stage their guerrilla wars since it was in such areas that they received much support. The major difference is that while McClintock focused on Peru and peasants, Weitz relies on four nations, that is, Cuba, Nicaragua, Bolivia and Venezuela to discuss the insurgency and counter-insurgency measures used by the guerrillas and the government. The two articles also differ from the fact that Weitz goes ahead to discuss the factors that contributed to success or failure of the insurgents. Weitz discusses leadership in nations such as Cuba that was key to helping the guerrillas successfully defeat the regimes.
Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970
Wickham-Crowley Timothy in 1990 wrote article about ‘Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970.’ Government counterinsurgency acts as explained by Taylor included beating, killing and bombing of innocent people with the brutal acts extending to the use of nuclear weapons. Those who surrendered to the government forces were shot on the spot while the jailed ones were continuously tortured to force out intelligent information from them. Forms of torture as explained by Wickham-Crowley included; suction devices applied to the fingers, pinching of the skin using clips, application of lemon juice in the eyes in addition to hot candle wax applied to the skin. The rural populations were subjected to torture with peasants who were reluctant to join the guerrillas being the softest targets. Brutal acts such as stomping by soldiers and dragging peasants on the ground were used to force them to support the insurgents in Peru. Estimates, according to Wickham-Crowley, of death among rural populations were high as the case of Cuban insurgency in which 20000 deaths of people occurred. The military was involved in series of brutal attacks that extended to gang raping of pregnant women and beating up of peasants to make them disclose information about the operations of the insurgents. Further, fear was instilled among the populace and those who were suspected to be involved in guerrilla warfare by putting grenades in the mouths of people while others were electrocuted in the ears, hands and genitals. The bombing of guerrilla war zones was rampant, and it caused an influx of the human death toll to above 8,000 in nations such as Peru where the regime was worried by the threat of potential domestic terrorism. The tactic used by the military was, therefore, the brutal murder of one individual to frighten thousands of others who would be tempted to join in the guerilla war. The insurgents also used their terror tactics which include threatening those involve in information leakages. To survive the regimes, the insurgents also used guerrilla tactics to launch small attacks on the military.
The article is unique in the way it addresses the terror acts used by both government and the insurgents which the earlier articles fail to clearly address. However, the article addresses similar themes like the issues addressed by Weitz and McClintock since they all discuss peasants interests as the main factor that contributed to revolutionary wars.
Counter-Insurgency Strategy, the PCP-Sendero Luminoso and the Civil War in Peru, 1980-1996
Lewis Taylor in 1998 also contributed to historical accounts of what took place in the Latin America. In his article on ‘Counter Insurgency Strategy, the PCP-Sendero Luminoso and the Civil in Peru, 1980-1996.’ Taylor addresses the reasons that contributed to the success of the insurgents in Peru. The Peruvian state had initially tried to weaken the political structure of insurgents. With intentions to ensure the state managed to successfully suppress the action of insurgents, intelligence information was sought at all costs. However, the response by the state was limited by the actions of its military that were involved in issues of indiscipline such as looting of peasants possession and abuse of women. The government had also failed to adequately train its army and poor motivation at times made the army men decide to join the insurgents. Stress among the army officers from poor pay, as well as frequent changes of personnel, limited success of the insurgents.
The uniqueness of the article is that it discusses the failure by the army to suppress dominance by insurgents. The fact that the article addresses the details that led to the failure of the state military makes the article different from those by McClintock, Weitz, and Wickham. However, it still has the same theme that involved peasants in the rural villages realizing the need for freedom that would improve their socio-economic well-being.
Ideology in Context: Explaining Sendero Luminoso's Tactical Escalation
James Ron in 2001 also contributed to the historical accounts of insurgency in Latin America with his article titled’ Explaining Sendero Luminoso’s Functional Escalation.’ The social, political and economic effects of the guerrilla insurgency were witnessed in Peru where Sender Luminoso led an armed struggle against a civilian government. Mass assassinations and marginalization of the disadvantaged groups were witnessed in Peru at the time hence creating major concern with Amnesty International expressing its worry on the social problems and execution of an innocent person by both the guerrillas and the regime. The Peruvian revolution also caused mass killing of family groups which meant disruption of family ties. However, incidences in Peru limited freedom of people since those who participated in elections were selectively murdered with major targets being activists, political leaders, intellectual and popular leaders. With the belief that bloodshed could make the guerrillas stronger, those who were reluctant to join the wars were killed. Assassination and terror were mechanisms used by the government to suppress the revolutionary acts against the state. Actions such as robbing banks and bombing of public places by insurgent groups in Peru were destructive to the nation since they disrupted economic and political stability. Destruction of infrastructure and attacks on police posts by insurgents created a situation that was perceived to be an operation outside the jurisdiction of the law. The case of Sendero proves the extent to which peasants were forced to be part of the insurgent programs. It was the low class of people that was greatly affected since unlike the rich people; the former could not escape from strife-stricken territories. Bloodshed, according to the insurgents led by Sendero, was believed to be the best way of cleansing, purifying and motivating force behind peasants fighting for what they believed was their right for effective land reforms in Peru. Those who objected to joining in the guerrilla warfare were subjected to acts of terror to frighten others hence enabling Sendero to expand his number of insurgents. If villagers resisted recruitment efforts, Sendero’s men would swing into action and use violence as an option to recruit. The mass killings, therefore, raised questions on the ability of Sendero to liberate Peru considering the fact that the nation had just elected its leaders, and it was on track to shifting away from military dictatorship and repression.
The article by James Ron is unique in the sense that it questions that motives of Sendero and discuss the terror acts used by Sendero to gain the support of the peasants. The article also addresses the fact that selective assassinations were carried out by Sendero’ men targeting the wealthy and politicians. The article is also different from the others since it talks of insurgents instilling fear among the locals by forcing them to be part of the revolutionary wars unlike in other articles where joining guerrillas as to larger extent voluntary.
A New Threat of Terror in the Western Hemisphere
Jeremy Weinstein in 2003 wrote on ‘A New Threat of Terror in the Western Hemisphere’ and the fact that motive of Sendero’s insurgency seemed to be an act of domestic terrorism. The activities carried out by Sendero, and his men were questioned by the United States, which claimed that insurgency in Peru was attributed to the drug trafficking business. Peru was potentially under threat of domestic terrorism were coerced cooperation from locals created a situation of jihadist nature. The acts of Shining Path, the movement Sendero had established were linked to those of Al-Qaeda and HAMAS that are widely known for their terrorist activities. Attacks on government institutions, international non-governmental organizations and private enterprises meant that Sendero’s revolution was meant to disrupt the political, social and economic stability of the nation. The threat faced by the government, therefore, triggered the Peruvian regime to adopt brutal counterinsurgency campaign to eliminate Sendero’s administration.
The uniqueness of the article by Weinstein is the fact that it links Sendero’s action to terrorism that posed a danger to the social, political and economic stability of Peru. The uniqueness creates the difference with other articles since while the rest are keen on explaining the fact that insurgents were interested in freedom and democracy, Weinstein believed that Sendero’s actions were only meant to protect drug trafficking in Peru.
Bibliography
McClintock, Cynthia. "Why Peasants Rebel: The Case of Peru's Sendero Luminoso." World Politics, 1984: 48-84.
Ron, James. "Ideology in Context: Explaining Sendero Luminoso's Tactical Escalation." Journal of Peace Research, 2001: 569-592.
Taylor, Lewis. "Counter-Insurgency Strategy, the PCP-Sendero Luminoso and the Civil War in Peru, 1980-1996." Bulletin of Latin American Research, 1998: 35-58.
Weinstein, Jeremy. "A New Threat of Terror in the Western Hemisphere." SAIS Review, 2003: 1-17.
Weitz, Richard. "Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Latin America, 1960-1980." Political Science Quarterly, 1986: 397-413.
Wickham-Crowley, Timothy. "Terror and Guerrilla Warfare in Latin America, 1956-1970." Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1990: 201-237.
