Introduction
The desire to conform to the norms is what makes the foundation of a civilized society. Social order, for instance, is a desired attribute that is founded on established written and unwritten rules that are being observed by most people within a society. Deviation from these established rules is considered as undesirable and people who deviate are considered as having abnormal qualities or malfunctioning (Merton, 2002, p. 672). There are instances, however, wherein some people are observed to deviate from the standard pattern of human behavior. This deviation has captured the interest of many social scientists and have been the focus of many studies. One prevailing school of thought regarding deviant behavior is the concept of anomie. The word ‘anomie’ traces its origins from the Greek word, ‘anomos,’ which means lawlessness (Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2017). This term was made significant when the French sociologist, Emile Durkheim, introduced the it in the 1800s, while studying the phenomenon of suicide (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). Durkheim used the term, anomie, to describe a type of suicidal behavior wherein an individual experience a cognitive state wherein he or she loses a sense of purpose, causing him or her to deviate from what is perceived by society as normal behavior (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). Durkheim also applied the term in the context of collective behavior. According to Durkheim, “When a social system is in a state of anomie, common values and common meanings are no longer understood or accepted, and new values and meanings have not developed” (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, 2014). The breakdown of social norms or lawlessness is an interesting phenomenon that occurs every now and then. One particular example is the riot that occurred in London on that August of 2011. The concept of anomie offers a theoretical framework in understanding this social phenomenon both as an individual deviant behavior and as a collective failure of society. It is a major theory of deviance that is interrelated with other theories that explains deviant behavior in an individual and collective context.
The 2011 London Riot
The riot that occurred in London on August of 2011 is one of the most violent in the city’s history of civil unrest. The first incidents of violence started a day after Mark Duggan, a 29 year-old mulatto, was shot and killed by a police officer in an alleged shootout (Mullin, 2016). Duggan, according to the arresting police officers, was under surveillance because of his illegal activities, particularly his involvement in gang, guns and drugs. According to police who shot Duggan, he was forced to do so after seeing him raise what seemed to be a gun towards the police officer’s direction. Duggan’s death outraged many people in London, particularly those who see his death as related to racial discrimination and police brutality. Barely two days after Duggan’s death, protesters marched towards the Tottenham police station, but the tension quickly got out of hand when the protesters started attacking the police, setting two of their patrol cars on fire. Since August 6, violence has already erupted in the Tottenham as the mobs were reported to vandalize and smash windows of commercial establishments. Some rioters use improvised explosives made out of beer bottles and some highly combustible substance, probably gasoline or butane, to set some establishments on fire. From Tottenham, the riots also spilled out in other parts of London, particularly in Bristol, Birmingham and Manchester area.
The August 2011 riot, however, is not an isolated issue. In fact, the city of London has witnessed a number of riots in its history. The August riot, for instance, has a striking resemblance with the riot that occurred in Tottenham in 1985. Just like the August 2011 riot, the riot in Tottenham in 1985 was also triggered by the death of a civilian, Cynthia Jarrett, during a police raid on her home. This incident also sparked a small protest that escalated into a major riot that killed a London police constable (Kennedy, 2011). Moreover, the rioting trend is not likely to stop anytime soon. Many of those who are involved in the riot, for instance, felt that the riot will happen again and that there would be several more to come in the near future (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 4). Several riots have happened in London in the past and most observers believe that the riot that happened in August of 2011 were just a repetition or echo of the series of riots that have plagued London’s society since the 1950s where constant rioting breaks out between whites and blacks in the Notting Hill area (BBC News, 2001; Williams, 2011). The riots became even more intense in the 1980s. The most significant of which are the riots in the Brixton and Toxteth area in Liverpool in 1981; which resulted in the damage of more than a hundred buildings and vehicles while around 600 people were arrested (Williams, 2011). Being prone to rioting, the city’s civil unrest can be a manifestation of the city’s deteriorating morals, which is consistent with the concept of anomie.
Although similar in many respects to the riot that occurred in Broadwater Farm, Tottenham in 1985, the August 2011 riot differed in terms of scale and intensity. The August 2011 riot, for instance, lasted 5 days not withstanding the sporadic rioting that occurred in nearby areas, which, observers believe, are connected with the Tottenham incident. Another remarkable difference is the looting that occurred during the August 2011 riot, which was not observed in the riot of 1985 or in any riots that occurred in the early 1980s. Mob looting is an interesting phenomenon that often occurs during disasters. Such behavior, for instance, has been observed in the aftermath of the hurricane Katrina in New Orleans as well as in the aftermath of the typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines. This opportunistic behavior emerges because of many factors, primary of which is the lack of authority to check and apprehend wrongdoing. When disasters happen, such that local authorities are too overwhelmed that they are unable to perform their duties, then a state of anomie or lawlessness is most likely to occur. The intention to loot in the London riot, however, is only secondary. The major reason for the riot, according to those involved is the “widespread anger and frustration at people’s every day treatment at the hands of police” (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 4). The issue regarding race could not be dismissed as well primarily because of the ethnicity of Duggan. Almost half of those who joined the riot, for instance, are blacks while 26% of the rioters are whites (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 3). Most of those who joined the riots are young people; half of which are aged 18 to 25 years old while 30% are juveniles (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 3).
Anomie in the Context of Individual Behavior
Deviation from the norms may be perceived as a behavior that is unique to an individual. This perspective can be substantiated by social learning theories, which posits that is a learned behavior. Being a learned behavior, deviance is unique to individuals as learning can be achieved in different and unique settings or circumstances. Social learning theories are not new concepts. Many of these theories dates back to the studies of criminologists and behavioral scientists as early as the 19th century; many of which have formed the foundation of the study of criminology and sociology. One of the earliest thinkers to imply that deviant behavior is learned is the English philosopher, John Locke. According to Locke, humans are born in a mental state of ‘tabula rasa’ or having blank mind (Uzgalis, 2015). Locke is implying in this statement that people are not inherently born bad or good. Rather, they learn these behaviors as they grow old. The works of many psychologists and behavioral scientists developed society’s understanding of the man’s learning processes; strengthening further the social learning theory as it applies to deviance and criminality. It was found, for instance, that an individual’s tendency to learn deviant behavior is influenced by differential reinforcement, differential association, definition and imitation (Akers & Jensen, n.d., p. 3).
Differential Reinforcement
Developed by criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess in the 1960s, the theory of differential reinforcement posits that criminal behavior is learned when the individual’s perception of reward exceeds the perception of punishment (Akers, 2009, p. 45). In the chaos and lawlessness that incurs during a riot, individuals, particularly those who are under the state of anomie would most likely engage in deviant behavior such as looting because the likelihood of being caught and punished is less than the perceived benefits associated with the deviant behavior. Many of those who joined the riots are also observed to come from the marginalized sector of society. According to studies, 59 percent of the rioters were “generally poorer than the country at large” (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 5). Being unable to afford many things because of poverty, the August riot presented an opportunity wherein the rioters can get things that they could not normally afford with a low likelihood of being caught. Based on the theory of differential reinforcement, such scenario could encourage deviant behavior. As observed by scholars who conducted a study on those involved in the riots, “Many rioters conceded their involvement in looting was simply down to opportunism, saying that a perceived suspension of normal rules presented them with an opportunity to acquire goods and luxury items they could not ordinarily afford” (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 5).
Differential Association
Another theory that explains anomie in an individual context is differential association. The theory of differential association was first introduced by the American criminologist, Edwin Sutherland, which posits that deviant behavior is learned through an individual’s association with social and non-social elements in his environment (Akers, 2009, p. 45). According to scholars, the more time that is being spent on exposure to deviance, the most likely and individual will be able to adapt the behavior (Akers & Jensen, n.d., p. 3). This theory explains why individuals with deviant parents, family members and peers become deviant themselves. It also explains why people who are exposed to violence and criminality also have a higher tendency of becoming violent themselves. Applying this theory in the context of the London riot of 2011, it can be hypothesized that those who joined the riot were influenced by their peers or relatives who may have participated in the riot as well. It also explains why the riot seems to be confined in communities where similar incidents have already occurred in the past. The area of Tottenham, for example, have always been prone to rioting. In the perspective of differential association, this behavior must be influenced by the significant exposure of residents of this area to riots.
Imitation
The concept of imitation was introduced by Albert Bandura in his famous bobo doll experiment. Through this experiment, Albert Bandura and his colleagues in the 1960s, showed proof that imitation of deviant behavior is a natural response of an individual and can influence individuals even unconsciously. Famously known in behavioral science as ‘The Bobo Doll Experiment,’ Bandura and his colleagues made some children witness an adult model bashing a bobo doll. When the same children who witnessed the violence were left with the doll, they tend to imitate the action that they have witnessed. Children who did not witness the violence, on the other hand, reacted differently towards the doll. Bandura concluded that when children are exposed to aggressive behavior, they also learn and imitate almost by instinct the aggressive behavior that they have witnessed (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961, p. 246).
Definition
Every individual has his or her own notion of what is wrong and what is right. This notion defines his or her attitude and tendency towards deviance (Akers & Jensen, n.d., p. 3). Some individuals, for instance, may find looting as acceptable, especially when one is poor. Or, an individual may justify his or her looting behavior during the riot because they perceive that it does not hurt anyone to steal from rich establishments; thinking that anyway, these establishments have insurances and so no harm is done. There are others, however, that see looting, regardless of the circumstances, as bad. Definition reflects the diversity of individual opinion toward what is deviant and what is not, which is important because it will also define whether they will engage in deviance or not.
Anomie in the Context of Collective Behavior
Collective deviant behavior is a common phenomenon and is seen as one of the effects of anomie in the context of a group or mob behavior. When seen under the perspective of anomie in a macro level, collective deviant behavior can be described as the breakdown of social norms that regulates the behavior of a community of people. There are many theories that explain why such breakdown occurs. One of the most widely accepted is the theory of social disorganization. The theory of social disorganization can be considered as a major theoretical framework that encompass a wide variety of overlapping and interrelated theories (Miller, 2009). It traces its roots in the works of criminologists in the School of Chicago; presently, the University of Chicago (Kubrin, 2009, p. 226). Among the pioneering proponents of this theory is the American criminologist, Frederic Thrasher. In studying the involvement of juveniles in the city’s gangs, Thrasher hypothesized that there must be a connection between the involvement of juveniles in gangs and the breakdown of social institutions that are supposed to contain them, such as the school, the church and the family (Alleyne & Wood, 2010, p. 102). Thrasher’s theory was further confirmed when University researchers, Ernest Burgess and Robert Park, established the connection between deviance and the social settings of an area. In studying the growth of the city of Chicago, Burgess and Park observed that people settle in areas within the city in a certain pattern.
Modeling the city in concentric zones, Burgess and Park noted that the more affluent the families are, the further they reside from the city’s central business district (Park, Burgess, & McKenzie, 1967, p. 54). This results in a pattern of distribution wherein people move into residential zones that are congruent with their occupation and economic status. Working individuals, for instance, needs to be near their workplaces and so they settle near the city’s central business district. Affluent families, on the other hand, settle a little bit further away from this zone where most exclusive subdivisions are located. The movement of people within an area does not only result to homogeneous segregation in terms of economic status. Those people who have improved their economic status, for instance, moved into areas where they believe is much safer and desirable for their families. As a result, some areas became undesirable while other areas were more preferred. The inner core of the city, for example, is identified by Burgess and Park as an undesirable zone where poverty, crime and vices are rampant (Park et al., 1967, p. 55). It can also be observed that the city slums and tenements are located in the inner area of a city and these areas are notorious for deviant behavior. The profiles of those who joined the London riot confirms this observation of Burgess and Park. The areas of Tottenham, Birmingham and Manchester, where the riots occurred also perfectly fits the profiles of the areas that are most likely to propagate anomic behavior. As observed by scholars, these are areas in the UK that are most deprived, with most residents living in poorer conditions than the rest of UK’s communities (Rusbridger & Rees, n.d., p. 5).
The theory of social disorganization was further developed by sociologists, Henry McKay and Clifford Shaw. Referencing on the works of Burgess and Park, McKay and Shaw further observed that the prevalence of deviant behaviors in some areas of the city is highly associated with the deterioration of social institutions (Kubrin, 2009, p. 227). Most delinquent youths, for instance, are observed to come from the slums where most families are dysfunctional. The services of other social institutions that normally provide control mechanisms, such as the law enforcement, social workers, schools and religious institutions, may not be easily accessible in these areas, which results to the further proliferation of delinquent behaviors. Consistent with the social disorganization theory, the breakdown of these important social institutions creates an environment that is prone to anomie. According to Shaw and McKay, social disorganization co-exist with other social problems, such as poverty, criminality and delinquency (Kubrin, 2009, p. 227). The breakdown of the family, for instance, pushes children towards the streets where they are exposed to a variety of deviant behavior and influences.
Conclusion
That anomie manifestation in the riot that occurred in London on August of 2011 can be interpreted either as an individual deviant behavior or a collective deviant behavior. In order to understand the riot in the context of individual behavior, the anomie should be perceived under the lens of social learning theories. These theories include the concept of differential association, differential reinforcement, imitation and definition. The social learning concepts consider anomie as a learned behavior, which explains why there are individuals who participate in the riot in London that does not fall under the common profile of rioters. On the other hand, anomie can also be seen as a collective behavior when seen under the theory of social disorganization. The theory of social disorganization posits that the breakdown of social institutions plays a key role in the proliferation of deviant behavior. This theory explains why riots repeatedly happen in certain areas; under similar circumstances; and involves a certain group of people who shares similar profiles. Being the most deprived areas in London, these areas must be socially deteriorating. Consistent with the concept of anomie, these areas must be cultivating the necessary environment wherein deviant behaviors thrive.
References
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