Women and gender studies
Gender studies - the practice of interdisciplinary research using the cognitive capabilities of the social theory of sex (gender) for the analysis of social phenomena and its changes. The psychoanalyst Robert Stoller worked at the University of California he has introduced into science the term "gender" in 1958, which means social manifestations of belonging to a sex or a "social sex". In 1963, Robert Stoller spoke at a psychoanalytic congress in Stockholm. He presented a report on the gender self-awareness. His concept was based on the separation into biological and culture study of sex. The scientist believed that sex is a subject area in biology and in physiology. Gender can be considered as a subject area of researches of psychologists and sociologists analysis of cultural and historical events. Offer R.Stoller about dividing biological and cultural components in the study of these issues related to gender and gave impetus to the formation of a special direction in the modern humanities - Gender Studies.
Thanks to its emergence and development, the gender in social theory is considered as a tool of social determination and stratification (along with class, ethnicity, denomination, culture) and the current social problems - power, violence, identity, freedom - are seen as problems associated with belonging to a particular sex. Issues about the essence of man, the meaning and purpose of gender studies are gained through gender dimension and appears as connected with the socio-sexual (gender) roles of each individual and the existing hierarchy in any society, and gender discrimination.
Women's studies - the initial stage of Gender Studies (70 years). The significant growth of interest in "female subject" in modern humanitarian knowledge refers to the end of the 60-th. The socio-political context of the emergence of women's studies was created from liberalist ideas (of emancipation, equality, autonomy, progress), as reflected in youth movements of the late 1960s and the revolution of the "new left", the sexual revolution, the consequences of which women gave more rules, and related to the sexual revolution of the "second wave" of feminism. Theoretical analysis of gender relations has been demanded to change (as compared to 19 and the "first wave" movement.) Objectives of feminists and their the struggle for equal rights were turned and fixed in the laws of many countries. Then they have moved to the struggle for equality of opportunity for women from "equality feminism" to "difference feminism" to the request to recognize the "special" women's social experience. The main their purpose was the creation of a free and autonomous women's personality.
The debate about "women's topics" dragged geneticists, psychologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, philosophers, historians, sociologists, linguists into researches. However, with the emergence in 1970 in France "the Movement for the liberation of women" there were established and the first feminist magazines. A similar process has started in the United States where in a short time have achieved high circulations of magazines: «Signs», «Feminist Studies» and «Women's Studies Quarterly». Rise of feminism influenced the intellectual sphere: scientists in Europe and the United States have sought to follow the object of its research - a woman: in the family, at work, in the legal and education systems, science, politics, literature and art. By the end of the 60-th and early 70's as a part of many traditional academic disciplines already in dozens of US and European universities there is appeared "the study of women". Historians returned unjustly forgotten names of those who contributed to the development of culture, literary critics considered the originality of figurative and verbal style women writers, teachers raised the issue about the features of education for boys and girls, psychologists turned to the previously known, but some half-forgotten classic works on the psychology of women, sociologists have tried to show the inequality of the social roles of men and women arising from its demographic consequences.
The term "gender" in their works was related only to the female experience and was used in a social, cultural and psychological, the "female" aspects in compared with "men" in describing the norms and stereotypes, social roles that were typical for women. Studies that were called "gender" and were published in the 70s, there were "women's studies" and women scientists standing on feminist positions. The same researches in 70 years could also be referred to: «Female Studies» - the scientists who learn feminism think that it is too much biologizing; «Feminist Studies» - was rejected by many because of the ideologies (since not all interested to join the new direction; «Women's Studies» - was considered too politically correct, as emphasized the "objectivity" of women or women as a subject of study; «Women Studies» - defines the study of any problem, written in "female subject", and more often by women themselves. In 1975, the UN declared "World Day of Women" and the American researcher Nynne Koch has designed the term "feminology". Under its began to realize an interdisciplinary branch of scientific knowledge that studies the set of problems related to the socio-economic and political position of women in society, the evolution of its social status and functional roles. Speaking about the main achievements of gender studies in their first feminism stage, it must be emphasized that they: have introduced the factor of sex differences in the traditional society, including the analysis of social stratification; female names were returned to social knowledge - history, philosophy, literature, psychology; forced to admit that the social knowledge, previously considered "full" and "universal" for all without distinction as to sex, it is not, as traditional theory of knowledge, played down the importance of the major in women's experiences and women's lives, areas of knowledge, was too rationalistic; substantiated the historicity of the two complementary social spheres - public- "male" and personal - "female" and the equal importance of the private sphere to the functioning of society; there were destroyed many of man's myths (of equal importance for both sexes major social upheavals - such as the French bourgeois revolution of 1789 on women's inability to create a work of genius - it became clear that the canons of genius were created by men; one forced to think that historical time living female half of humanity, takes place not in the same rhythm as the male; created the prerequisites for the transition from the analysis of large structures and social sciences to anthropologically - oriented social scientists interested in the lives of individuals; raised the question about different scientific styles - objective as "male" and emotionally rich as "female" - in writing researches ; introduced a gender dimension in the socio-economic history, adding to themes such as "the feminization of poverty", "female unemployment of political economy of domestic work", "history of women's domestic work", forcing to recognize "gender" like a category of one of the structure of economic principles; revealed a special understanding of the topic "women's work" as women's unpaid labor (birth of children, their education, work to maintain home cleanliness, cooking, washing, ironing, care for the sick and infirm), that it always was , in every century it is invisible or it was deliberately unnoticed: after analyzing the past and the present "female occupations" (educators, teachers, governesses, cooks, laundresses, spinners, weavers, nurses, social workers) researchers of women showed that these professions have developed and played back as an extension of the gender roles assigned to women by social and cultural norms. "Women's studies" involved the mass of women in the feminist movement, including women from among scientists. They came into a new area of knowledge with the developed everyday and academic experience, which allowed them to turn the "private" in the first "professional" and then in "political". (R.Unger slogan: "Private - is political!") - The slogan of feminism "second wave"). The feminists showed differences among themselves in feminology quite quickly despite the desire for unity. One researcher saw in the «women studies» a women's movement; other - believed that it was only a scientific direction. There were discrepancy between feminist scholar-practitioners and theorists; the first was accused in the distance with the specific issue. Their opponents were supporters (as they claimed) greater objectivity and less politicized they opposed the further isolation of "women's studies" in conventional sciences. It became clear for many of them that a simple "add" women's names, mechanical inclusion in the study of women is not enough to change perceptions about the role of women in general to convince in a variety of social experience between the sexes.
"Women's studies" multiplied a number of adherents. They were increasingly declaring about independence and dissimilarity with other sciences and the principles of their teaching "women's studies" actively promoted their new approaches to learning, focusing on criticism of all forms of domination and encouraging male colleagues for cooperation and tolerance. Reflecting on the concept of "women's studies" feminology almost simultaneously came to the conclusion about the need to coordinate their research. By the end of the 80's in science there were a new tendency to call all studies that relating to gender issues of sex whatever content that its may be and whatever the theoretical platform that its are written. The concept of "gender studies" proved to be more conformable and acceptable to the scientific community instead of the term "women's studies". Scientists were willing to call themselves and some men who have not found courage into themselves in the past to be called experts in the field of "Women's Studies" and especially feminists. For a significant number of researchers the term "gender" was, therefore, like a convenient cover ("terminological umbrella") expressing "political neutrality and academic respectability" (Dzh.Skott). The third stage of development of gender studies: associations and demarcations (end 1980 - end of the 90s). From the analysis of patriarchy and its inherent suppression and discrimination (women, sexual minorities) policies of the gender scientists in 80-th found it possible to proceed to the analysis of gender systems that is to identify and analyze different aspects of the social and cultural dimension to their gender. The content of gender studies were expanded to include issues of masculinity and sexuality. At this stage, gender studies it is combining "men's studies" and "women's studies" - have become an accepted part of curricula in hundreds of high schools (600 colleges in 34 states) and 30 independent departments in American universities. The US launched its operation more than 130 programs of postgraduate education through the "women's and gender studies" - they are preparing masters and doctorates.
Racial prejudices
However, the prospects of unifying trends in gender studies is not pleasing to all of their followers. In particular, in the late '80s, many of the works written on the basis of gender-based approach to the analysis of social phenomena have been criticized for insensitivity to racial differences (as the researchers applied mainly to the problems of white European and American-educated middle-class women). This trend has been associated with the strengthening of the position of the color of feminism. This problem is entrenched for a long time and yet remains relevant at the present time instead of the problem of the gender disparities. This tipe of inequality has a big impact on the economy, migration processes, the pyramid of society, and other social spheres. Such as free medicine, insurance, loans, the police, the courts and simply leaving abroad.
Even 50 years ago it was hard to imagine and belive that the people of the world would speak openly about the problem of inequality and the more of such phenomena as tolerance and equality of opportunity. In the past similar processes were considered quite normal and various social movements were not taking seriously. Stronghold of this kind of inequality ware the United States of America, where until the middle of the first quarter of the second half of the century, there was a total separation between white Americans and African Americans. Only after the US Civil War in 1965, Abraham Lincoln took thirtieth amendment to the Constitution and the dark-skinned inhabitants of America were freed from slavery. Starting approximately from the beginning of the 60's society started to think about the elimination of racial segregation.
At this time, there are various protest movements. In opinion of scientists, it was the starting point of the modern history of the struggle against inequality, in particular first American human rights activist was Martin Luther King, and his famous speech "I Have a Dream", it was recognized as the best of speeches of the XX century according to the American community oratory. Starting approximately from the beginning of the 60's society started to think about the elimination of racial segregation. At this time, there are various protest movements. In opinion of scientists, it was the starting point of the modern history of the struggle against inequality, in particular first American human rights activist was Martin Luther King, and his famous speech "I Have a Dream", it was recognized as the best of speeches of the XX century according to the American community oratory. That's what he said at the Lincoln Memorial, 28 August, 1963: " I have a dream that one day this nation will raise the head and will live with understanding the true meaning of its principles:" We consider it self-evident, that all men are created equal. " I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will turn into an oasis of freedom and justice. I dream that the day will come when my four children will live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of skin, but in accordance with their personal qualities ". His views on this issue changed the peoples way of thinking and showed how to solve this problem. His teaching had an enormous influence on the development of understanding of the fact that all people, regardless of skin color, religion and other outlooks on life, should have equal opportunities to obtain benefits, which, incidentally, has already been reflected in the European Convention on Human Rights fundamental freedoms, which entered into force in September 1953.It is important to understand that this is not a universal, total equality, but equality of initial opportunities to achieve benefits. Full equality is impossible a priori statements on this issue, in our view, it is utopian and unrealizable in practice. There will always be a problem of the rich and the poor, the problem of lack of food and drinking water, the problem of terrorism and the lack of opportunities for skilled care. Thus, the US has spent on the awareness and elimination of the problem of racial inequality for decades, but in the end, came to the conclusion that segregation is detrimental to society and civil rights, especially considering how tenderly and earnestly Americans relate to democracy and history which has more than 200 years.But now even the president of United States of America, Barak Obama is saying openly about the problem of global inequality. In response to recent events in Minnesota where police killed 32-year-old African American Filando Castile during a routine check of documents after his car was stopped by the police because of the broken rotary signal. Gubernator Minnesota said that the tragedy would not have happened, if a white American was driving this car. the state prosecutor's office opened an investigation at that time, as the governor of the state and federal lawmakers have called on authorities to conduct a proper investigation into violations of the police civil rights Filando Castile.
After the protest in Times Square in New York City because of the death of Elton Sterling in Louisiana and Filando Castile in Minnesota, US President and the government are concerned about the activities of law enforcement agencies and their towards people of other races. ( New York Times, 8 July 2016). Barack Obama said: "When incidents occur, like these, a large number of our fellow citizens think that society are treated them differently because of the color of their skin It should worry us all. Feeling restless - it is not a manifestation of political correctness, it feeling characteristic to Americans. "
Global inequality
As the world becomes more integrated,global dimension of inequality will get more significance. This is for at least two reasons: increased movement of factors of production across borders, as well as in-crease the influence of well-being and lifestyle of other people on the position and expectations regarding the level in dividual income. The increased movement of capital, property, technologies and ideas from one part of the globe to another. It implies strengthening the link with the people who are not compatriots and more dependent formation of the individual's income from the other states. The movement of labor forces that most clearly demonstrates this relationship, currently it has a lower value than the chamber movement capital, but it is constantly increasing. Knowledge of how to live other people and how much money they earn, has large great influence on our perception of space and own incomein the pyramid of income. In such way, global inequality only reinforces sexism, racial prejudice and institutional racism.
Work cited
Pushkareva, Natalia. “Why does he need this gender?”, Moscow: Social History.1998-
1999.
Bystydzienski Jill. “Women's Studies Programs in the United States: History and Current
Issues”, Iowa State University.1999.
Denisova Alla. "Dictionary of gender terms", Moscow.2002. pp.100-103
Branko Milanovic. “Global income inequality in the figures”, Moscow: Publishing House
Higher School of Economics. 2014.
2016. Web. Retrieved from:
http://www.svoboda.org/content/usa-police-shooting/27845555.html
