Procedures in the Physical Sciences
Part 1: Challenges in Measurement
- Direct measurement in the field of physics refers to the process of exactly measuring the subject that the physicists is seeking to measure. However, the field of physics is challenged in making direct measurements. For instance, the key tenets of uncertainty principle makes it impossible for scientist to directly measure the wave function to be able to determine the state of a quantum system (University of Rochester, 2013). In the development of quantum systems, measuring the polarization of the sate of light was the foundation of direct measurement by determining related variables known as conjugate variables (University of Rochester, 2013). Performing the measurement multiple times and determining the average overcame this challenge. Furthermore, the researchers Boyd and his colleagues in Rochester University used the momentum and position of the light as polarization state indicator as an indirect form of measurement. Another significant challenge in physics is measuring the mass scale of absolute neutron mass in the field of astrophysics and particle physics. Measuring absolute neutron mass requires determining the kinetics of emitted electrons in beta decays (Nucciotti, 2013). The challenge here is that the only model available since its exploits is kinematical neutron mass measurement, which does not conform a direct measurement principle in determining absolute neutron mass scale. This challenge was overcome by performing calorimetric measurements as an indirect approach. In this approach, the beta source is embedded as an alternative spectrometry in the detector. The configuration inherent in the chosen measurement indicates the emitted energy in the decay can easily be determined by the detector in exemption to the fractions that were taken by the neutrino. The third challenge in physics’ direct measurement is the technical instrumentation of liquid scintillator, which is significant in the development of neutrino physics. Directly measuring antineutrinos require attenuation, photon yields, stability and intrinsic radioactivity (Yeh, 2013). Among the various experimental approaches to measure the antineutrinos, scientists have opted to performing experiments that conform to indirect measurement such as the KamLAND and SNO+, which are the scintillator-based detectors. In this approach 0ββ isotope were used as target and detector along with SNO+ and KamLAND. Such 0ββ isotope provides an advantage in terms of flexibility and scalability in which the target mass can be expanded to larger scales (Yeh, 2013).
- Influential tools and techniques aided revolutionary discoveries in physical sciences. One example of historically influential tool is mathematics. For instance, Numerical analysis requires numerical calculations to solve. Mathematical equations describing the physical world are very complex and the way to solve them is to use numerical methods. For example, Interpolation is described as the process of finding the value between tabulated points and doing so will also enable the physicist to estimate error. In the given linear interpolation:
There is a hint of error in the above equation and error can be estimated by transforming the variables that reads:
The mathematical tools and methods such as linear interpolation exampled above revolutionized physical science (physics) in terms of constructing and interpreting variables ideal for physics as well to as to simply things. Experimental procedures, results and relevant findings are often expressed in equations and mathematical models. In terms of influential techniques, functions of measurement is considered to be the most useful and widely used. Measurement in physics is used as a fundamental technique of acquiring definitive variables and serves an important role in creating physical quantities (Kuhn, 1961). For example, Einstein’s theory of relativity is considered to be the greatest intellectual achievement in physical science. However, such achievement was obtained through measurement techniques of the time. In the theory of relativity, the results of E=mc2 was obtained by calculating the speed of light versus time. Measurement in general helped the development of physical science in terms of turning new hypothesis into context. New theories were established by measuring variables to prove probability of the given hypothesis, thus creating possibilities for new discoveries such as that of Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Part 2: A Survey of Safety
- 3.1. One of the main concerns in physical science particularly in physics is often found in laboratory. It was believed that the cause of death of one of physics’ greatest mind Marie Curie was due to exposure to radiation. However, this is just a myth that is linked to safety concerns associated in physical sciences. Studying radioactive materials such as radium in physics application is a hazard to most physicists. This is because of the radioactive elements in the elements that cause significant risks. In order to implement safety, scientists use special equipment and protective suit to repel radioactive elements. Contamination suits are worn when handling radioactive materials to prevent the atoms from penetrating the human cells. For instance, iron vests are worn during x-ray emissions to protect the organs from radioactive rays.
- 3.2. Physical sciences impact the safety of global communities adversely bot negatively and positively. For example, the Chernobyl incident in Russia caused number of lives in jeopardy due to nuclear radiation. It was apparent that uncalculated mistakes caused the nuclear reactors in Chernobyl nuclear plant to burst, spreading radioactive materials in the air. The impact of such is devastating. However, physical science still had immense beneficial contribution to the global community. For example, the law of inertia can be observed when and felt when riding a bike. Therefore, the law of inertia has contributed to people to learn using two-wheeled vehicle without tipping on either side. Furthermore, physical science has contributed to several innovations such as microwave, space flight and rocket ships.
References
Cook, A. H. (1975). The importance of precise measurement in physics. Contemporary Physics, 16(4), 395-408.
GIBBS, P. (1996). Is The Speed of Light Constant?. Retrieved July 20, 2013, from http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/speed_of_light.html
Kuhn, T. S. (1981). The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science. Chicago Journals, 52(2), 161-193. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/228678?uid=3738824&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21102169499603
Nucciotti, A. (2013, June 5). Direct neutrino mass measurements. Retrieved July 20, 2013, from http://artico.mib.infn.it/nucriomib/tutorials/direct-neutrino-mass-measurements
Yeh, M. (2013). Liquid Scintillator Instrumentation for Physics Frontiers. Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1-5.
