Final Portfolio Projects
Introduction
The first project is from Chapter One: Introducing Linguistic Anthropology and involved asking people around me about what their opinion was regarding some popularly held notions about languages, and how the level of sophistication of a language is correlated with how civilized a people are perceived to be.
The second project is from Chapter Twelve: Language, Culture, and Thought and explores the differences between cultural relativism and universalism in analysing various aspects of a culture.
The third project is from Chapter Nine: Languages In Variation and Languages In Contact and pertains to the increasing usage of English language words in Japan, so much so, that they have become a matter of daily usage among the masses in Japan.
The fourth project is Chapter Eleven: Culture As Cognition, Culture As Categorization and concerns the role of binary opposites in linguistics.
Contrary to what I had expected, most of the people I discussed the subject with displayed linguistic awareness and neutrality that is rare to find. The opinion was unanimous when it came to a discussion about viewing America as a single language country. People were emphatic in stating that a nation established and developed by immigrants cannot be unilingual; the amalgamation of various cultures also signified the coming together of people who had their own unique language systems . They viewed other countries, regardless of geographical location in a similar way and their opinions match the ones held by anthropologists that no country in the world today can pronounce one, single language as the only one spoken within its borders. More importantly, even in countries where one language is predominant, such as Afghanistan for instance, where Afghani is the national language, there are a multitude of dialects that people use.
This awareness of dialects within a language has also made people realize that the way a certain tribe or group speaks a language has no bearing on their level of refinement and intelligence . Variations in languages are a naturally occurring process as people travel to different locations and are influenced by different cultures and languages; this ultimately causes variations in pronunciations.
Similarly, most people, despite never having studied linguistics in class, are aware that the English language is very complex when it comes to rules of pronunciation. In fact, most agreed that for non-native speakers the greatest challenge is learning the subtle differences in saying different words that may be spelt in similar ways and vice versa. One example given was that of ‘hour’ and ‘your’, both ending with the same suffix but pronounced very differently.
Given this complexity in language rules, the prevalent opinion is that the best way to attain proficiency in a language is by learning it from trained professionals. The idea of ‘picking up words and phrases here and there and learning a language’ was generally disregarded as was the fact that multi lingual individuals do not have a hundred percent mastery of their native tongue. People are of the opinion that learning different languages is an inherent skill, making it easier for some rather than others. As one respondent stated that “some students are always good at maths while other in class have to struggle through it”, similarly, it is the genetic makeup that determines how many and how easily one person can master myriad languages. This was believed to be the case especially when it comes to languages that are considered difficult to learn. The languages that made to this list included Mandarin, Korean, Sanskrit and Latin; language systems that comprise of more alphabets or are considered ‘primitive or ancient and hence not recorded very well’, are generally considered very difficult to learn for people who are not born into it .
A certain level of social refinement is naturally attached to people who possess a comprehensive vocabulary of a certain language and the way they speak it, and the dictionary is still dubbed the most credible source of learning new words. What was a surprising revelation was the fact that most people believe that all language systems are based on alphabets; this is an incorrect assumption, since there are several popular languages that rely on syllables, symbols and meanings in writing and reading, but people are generally unaware of it.
Project Two
The age-old universalism versus cultural relativism debate pertaining to linguistics is based on the internal and external similarities and differences in how people interpret the information they receive and deal with the people they interact with. The bone of contention here is resolving the question that whether the gap between relativists and Universalists is shrinking or not. Universal linguists are of the view that of all the 7,000 languages that have been recorded so far, despite superficial differences in alphabets, syntax, phonetics, lexicons and grammar, the facts of our reality are perceived in similar ways by everyone . Linguistic relativists on the other hand, are of the opinion that the differences in language, expression and structure significantly influences how people interpret the world; as long as these subtle differences exist, there can be no possible reconciliation between the both.
The theory of linguistic structuralism supports the Universalist view, that there is a single, unified structure common to all languages. However, subsequent research has disproved his long-held belief. First of all, since language is considered to be a social tool, utilised by a large group of people to share and transfer information, the manner in which the language is spoken has subtle differences that are caused by racial, ethnic and social differences. Therefore, it is difficult to state that even within a largely homogenous community, a universal language is spoken.
Secondly, linguistic structuralism also presupposes that languages remain uninfluenced by events and people over time, retaining their original structure . Referred to as semiology, linguistic anthropologists have established that languages today do not conform to this principle since they are deeply influenced by historical, cultural, political, economic and social events. Languages have and will continue to evolve or become extinct, depending on their level of exposure with its external environment and the influx of people into the language’s native land.
Thirdly, proponents of universalism also state that people have no involvement when it comes to determining the context in which the word/phrase can be used. This is not a practical approach. Since language is a tool developed by people over time, any and all experiences they have, including interactions with other language speakers, influences their native tongue as well. New words, phrases and dialects creep in and become part of a language even before anyone is consciously aware of it. Once the speakers of a particular language adopt certain turns of phrases, they become part of the language as the usage becomes more common .
A linguistic determinist will agree with the reasons provided because their ideology is that the speakers of different languages have varied thought processes and experiences. A Universalist, rare as they are today, will refute the arguments provided by stating that the apparent differences are only at the surface, and that there is a common denominator underneath all languages. Lastly, a cultural relativist is likely to side with the linguistic determinist; this is because the entire philosophy of Cultural Relativism is the acknowledgement that there is no single, universal linguistic system in place.
Project Three
Dear Mr. Takahashi,
We at NHK are aware of the reservations you raised regarding the extensive usage of English words in Japanese, in particular by the country’s largest, nationwide broadcast channel in its programs. I am aware that on the surface, this mixing of English and Japanese is considered by you as an adulteration of the purity of our national language .
However, there are certain aspects of borrowing words from the English language dictionary and/or Oxford that are essential and unavoidable.
Firstly, the rapid pace of technological advancements and innovations in the Western world that found their way to Japan first triggered this ‘loaning’ trend. This included the addition of words like the Internet, computer hacking or I.P. addresses that had no literal or figurative translation available in Japanese. As a result these terminologies were adapted into the language system as increased U.S.-Japan collaboration started after World War II.
Secondly, as many of Japanese youth have been exposed to American culture, including its music and other recreational activities, and began using the ‘high school’ slang they would see on television .
While I can understand your stance on blocking English from what you believe to be a take-over of our national language, I would like to bring your attention to the several positives that can be achieved and maintained easily, thanks to English loanwords. First, having a greater range of words, synonyms and vocabulary at one’s disposal allows for more creative expression in literary pursuits. Secondly, being familiar with international phrases that are trending allow our youth to be less isolated and more integrated into the global societal and cultural network. This will ensure that when Japanese youth travel to the U.S., mostly for higher education, they will feel less alien and have greater chances of connecting socially with other foreign students.
Similarly, there are particular Western phrases that are used to refer to elite Western lifestyles; awareness of and exposure to such cultural themes and trends will help our people keep up with the goings on in the global arena .
But perhaps the most important benefit of making our audiences more aware of American words is that Japanese people (despite not being fluent in English themselves) will still be able to communicate with relative ease with people anywhere in the world who understand English. As you must be aware that by utilizing the katakana method of recording communications (in which native Japanese words and those borrowed from English are written differently), the threat of our heritage and identity getting lost in Westernization can be completely eliminated. Since all foreign words, whether from English or any other language, can be picked out easily, the Japanese language actually becomes more enriched over time .
This orthographical separation thus enables our viewers to develop a Western vocabulary, without allowing alien languages to affect the authenticity of Japanese.
It is my sincere hope that you are able to see the situation of using English loanwords in our programming and broadcasts, in a different light and are able to see the many benefits that I have listed above.
Project Four
The literal meaning of the word binary is two. The concept of binary opposites in linguistics and/or literature is to establish the definition of two words, concepts or ideas that are mutually exclusive or opposite of each other. Therefore, the system of binary opposites is considered essential in language structuralism since opposing meanings of phrases and ideas help in their organization and add value to the language experience .
Dog/cat are not binary opposites. This is because these words are two labels used to differentiate between two separate categories of animals that have unique physical and biological characteristics. The two kinds of animals are not opposites in any way and therefore do not meet the criteria of qualifying as binary opposites.
Applying the same logic, hen/chick are binary opposites. While the first example referred to two separate animal species, this concerns two different names given to the same species of animals, but at a different lifecycle stage; a chick’s life has just started while a chicken is a fully-grown adult who has lived for many years and has experienced different events during the course of its life. Therefore, a chick is at the beginning of its life; a hen has reached maturity .
Heaven/hell are very explicit binary opposites since they fit the definition perfectly. Both heaven and hell are extreme opposites; one represents a place of punishment for people whose sins outweigh their good deeds while the other is a symbol of eternal happiness and contentment for those who abstained in this life for a better life in the Hereafter. Thus, heaven and hell are binary opposites with hell representing a destination for those who indulged their vices, and heaven the final abode for the ones who abstained.
Raw/cooked are also classic binary constructs. Used in the context of the culinary world, any ingredient which is raw is in its naturally state and has not been modified or processed in any way. Cooked food represents inputs of time, skill and resources to improve the taste and appearance of consumption items; rawness symbolises originality, while cooking represents enhancements .
White/black, similar to dog/cat, do not qualify as binary opposites. This is because while the latter are two names assigned to animal species, the former are names of two families of colour. When used figuratively, white/black may qualify as a binary construct since in many cultures black symbolizes evil and negativity, while white stands for purity.
Red, Pepsi and skirt are not binary opposites. The first is the name assigned to a colour, the second is a popular, bottled carbonated drink; each one specifies a particular category of objects and therefore have no opposites.
The quality of being ‘handsome’ is an adjective in English, used to describe an individual with extreme good looks. Logic dictates that its opposite (going by the rules mentioned earlier in the project) will be ugly or ordinary looking .
If opposites are considered from a figurative standpoint, then animal/human would be binary constructs. This binary opposite is used in the English language to convey how well-behaved and civilized some people (humans) are, compared to others who lack civility, manners and are prone to aggression and causing harm to themselves as well as others.
Works Cited
Kay, Gillian. "English loanwords in Japanese." World Englishes (1995): 67-76. Print.
Salzmann, Zdenek. Language, Culture & Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Boulder: Westview Press, 2014. Print.
