Introduction
Child rearing encompasses the diverse practices of parenting meant to instill different attitudes and behavior in children. John Locke proposed the idea that children are born devoid of any values and beliefs and that these are conveyed to them by the society which they are born into (Spera 125). Child rearing entails a process of transmitting skills, attitudes, and behaviors to the young to assist their integration into a cultural community (Spera 126). Parents are amongst the most influential agents of socialization that interact with children through the child rearing process. Child rearing practices include parental involvement in the child’s life, communication of parental goals, and future aspirations to the child, and parental styles which divide parents into three primary groups authoritative, permissive and authoritarian. According to Van Campen and Russell (1), prevalent notions of good parenting in the United States are those of stereotypically authoritative parenting. However, other cultures, such as Asians, practice different parenting styles that are equally effective. From the enculturation interview, the respondent was a married Caucasian woman around thirty years of age named Peyton; mother to a seven-year-old girl – Lilly. Child rearing is not an exact science, and different practices of parenting might produce similar effects. The techniques of child rearing are seemingly relevant as they affect the person a child grows up to become.
Child-Rearing Practices and Cross-Cultural Comparisons
Parental involvement is an essential element of the child rearing process. Caring for a child for the first six years after birth is especially important in this process as these are the formative years. The presence of both parents at birth, nursing the child for the recommended time, and positive interactions with a child from birth are important displays of affection. Parental involvement concerning schooling involves assisting the child with homework, being present at extracurricular activities like sports events, and presence at parent-teacher conferences (Hill and Taylor 163). Lower parental involvement and inclination towards harsh punishments are common amongst parents from disadvantaged backgrounds (Spera 140). Parents from low socio-economic backgrounds are faced with challenges, such as juggling jobs and might not have ample time to be involved in their children’s education (Hill and Taylor 164). The attention awarded to a child from birth helps them feel loved and builds their confidence. Peyton and her husband Ted were both excited about having their first child and upon her arrival, they were constantly involved in her life. When Lilly was born, her father was in the hospital room with about six relatives waiting outside; both her parents cared for her during infancy, even potty trained her and assisted her with her homework every day. According to Peyton, her worst fears regarding child rearing would be that she did not participate enough in her child’s life.
Communicating parental goals and aspirations for one’s child is another way to for parents to socialize with their children (Spera 130). A 2004 U.S. Bureau of Census data suggested that the proportions of Caucasians who attain college degrees are higher than those of African-Americans and Hispanics. However, according to Spera (131), the three social groups consider education a valuable tool and their educational aspirations with regards to their children are comparable. It raises issues of socio-economic bias that may be the reason for fewer minorities attaining higher education. Numerous studies described in Spera’s (139) article found that parental socialization goals in the United States do not vary by ethnicity. Peyton expects that her child will continue to perform well and that Lilly will become a successful and respectable member of society possibly a lawyer like her father.
The style of parenting employed by parents is essential in child rearing as it shapes a child’s behavior. Parenting styles fall into two major groups according to Spera (132), love-oriented and object-oriented. The love-oriented style involves using the maternal use of "warmth, praise, and emotional affection" while the object-oriented style concerned the use or withdrawal of physical objects like toys in response to the positive or negative behavior of the child (Spera, 132). From the interview with Peyton on her childrearing practices, it is evident that her parenting style is love-oriented rather than object-oriented. Peyton speaks very highly of her daughter Lilly; she described her as an exceptional child who was friendly to all, an attitude Peyton had cultivated in her since infancy. According to Peyton, her disappointment is enough punishment in case Lilly misbehaves. Such kind of approval from a parent makes it easier for most children to internalize the beliefs and values of their parents). In the American society, Caucasians practice the love-oriented parenting style while African-Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans are more drawn to the object-oriented parenting style. Parenting styles are unique to each parent, and some parents might practice styles believed to be unconventional of their culture.
Three major types of parents exist based on their parenting typologies- authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian Parental types are essential as they determine the responsiveness of children to their parents’ ideals and beliefs. According to Spera (134), being authoritative involves illustrating support and affection to one’s child and exhibiting high levels of maturity. Authoritarian parents are strict, and the process of socialization with their children mainly involves demands for observance of rules, and there is little rationale given to these rules. Permissive parents are in most instances unconcerned and show little regard for their children’s actions (Hill and Taylor, 163). According to Spera (136), authoritative parenting is more common amongst Caucasians while Hispanics, African-Americans, and Asians are more inclined to the authoritarian style of parenting. Peyton is in the authoritative category; despite Lilly being young, her mother often talks to her about the importance of being self-sufficient. For instance, Lilly is supposed to assist her mother to clear the table every day after meals. When Lilly misbehaves, her mother talks as well as listens to her and attempts to rationalize the consequences of misconduct with her daughter.
Effects of Environment and Socio-economic Pressures of Child Rearing Habits
Socio-economic pressures affect the parenting style adopted by parents in different cultures as well as the level of involvement. A predisposition towards authoritarian or authoritative parenting, for instance, can be influenced by factors like socio-economic background, a number of parents in the household, and parental education (Spera, 137). Peyton is an authoritative parent; she is an old parent who is educated and married, and this could explain why she is not inclined to practice authoritarian parenting like her younger more disadvantaged counterparts in single-parent families. Authoritative parenting is considered more effective in instilling parental values into children. However, it would be impractical for uneducated parents to rationalize with their children about the benefits of education or even to help their child with their homework. Immigrant parents, such as Chinese and Filipino American parents, display their affection through instrumental support (Van Campen and Russell 2). By working hard to support their families and to afford education to their children, these parents are considered ‘good parents’ in their cultures, which is not the case for their white counterparts. Most Chinese American youth considers their parents as authority figures rather than companions as in Caucasian families (Van Campen and Russell 3).
Relevance of Child Rearing Practices in Adolescence and Adulthood
The most important function of the child rearing process is that of shaping rational and successful adults. The authoritative style characterized by high support and high control mostly common in Caucasian families allows young adults to cope better in tough circumstances as well as suffer low instances of depression and delinquency and perform well in school and work environments (Van Campen and Russell 1). However, the authoritarian parenting style works unexpectedly well for other ethnic groups, such as Asian and African Americans. Chinese children perform comparably well to their white counterparts (Van Campen and Russell, 1). According to Peyton, her child-rearing practices, such as her parenting style are mainly borrowed from those of her parents and her husband’s parents, and she observes these practices because she is proud of the person her parents raised her to be, and so is her husband.
Conclusion
The process of child rearing is an avenue for young members of a particular society to learn acceptable skills, modes of conduct, and attitudes as prescribed by their cultural communities. It allows them to be successfully integrated into the society. Important aspects of child-rearing practices include the type of parenting styles, parental goals and aspirations of their children, and parental involvement in children’s learning process. Caucasians favor the love-oriented parenting style which revolves around offering or withdrawing emotional affection and praise. Most minority groups, such as African-Americans favor the object-oriented parenting style, which is concerned with the provision or withdrawal of tangible objects such as toys. The level of parental involvement is another factor that varies with ethnicity. Caucasian parents spend considerably more time and effort on their children as compared to most of the minority groups in the United States. The disparity could be due to the different parenting styles or as a result of disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds of various minority groups. The two main parental typologies, authoritative and authoritarian, are typical of Caucasians and minorities respectively. They influence the responsiveness of the child to her parents’ values. The authoritative style is perceived as more effective in instilling values for Caucasians. However, other cultures seem to benefit comparably from alternative parenting styles. The most important factor in child rearing should be to focus on the adults being shaped by society during their formative years. There is no significant difference between adults of different child-rearing practices the variation like most adults from a different culture is based on their socio-economic background rather than how their parents raised them.
Works Cited
Hill, Nancy E and Lorraine C Taylor “Parent-School Involvement and Children’s Academic Achievement: Pragmatics and Issues” Current Directions in Psychological Science 13 (2004): 161-164. Print
Spera, Christopher “A Review of the Relationship among Parenting Practices, Parenting Styles, and Adolescent School Achievement” Educational Psychology Review, 17. 2 (2005): 125-146.
Van Campen, K S and Stephen T Russell “Cultural Differences in Parenting Practices: What Asian American Families can teach us” Francs McClelland Institute for Children, Youth, and Families Research Link, 2 (1): 1-4 Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press. 2010. Print
