The Dynastic Cycle in China
As Usher writes, “A dynastic cycle is a periodic alternation of society between despotism and anarchy.” The political theory of a dynastic cycle implies to the idea that each dynasty undergoes four major steps of development: foundation, consolidation, deceleration, and extinction. After its creation, the dynasty reaches its peak giving the country all possible benefits and making it prosperous, and then declines and falls being replaced by the new dynasty. Throughout its history, China was under the reign of lots of dynasties and, hence, experienced lots of repetitive dynastic cycles. All of them had similar structures but different causes of creation and fall. The aim of this paper is to discuss two Chinese Dynasties, Sui and Tang, and to compare their dynastic cycles including their similarities and the reasons for decline and collapse.
For a start, let’s compare the four steps of a dynastic cycle for the Sui and the Tang dynasties. As it was mentioned above, the first step of the cycle is the foundation. According to Yang, major and minor dynasties and the pre-dynastic survivals that affect the beginnings of a dynasty can overlap each other in two ways, the internal overlapping, and the external one. The internal overlapping is typical for abdication. The establisher of the future dynasty or his close relative serves as an official under the reign of the previous Emperor. Soon, he gains enough influence to make the Emperor abdicate and comes to power. As Yang writes, the internal overlapping was a normal shift of power in the times from the Han rule to the Sung dynasty, and those times included the reign of the Sui and the Tang.
The Sui dynasty was founded by Yang Jian, or Emperor Wen of Sui, in 581. Despite the fact the Sui dynasty was a short major dynasty, which rule had lasted only for thirty-eight years, it left a significant mark in history of China. The beginnings of the Sui dynasty started with the reshuffle. Yang Jian served as the Prime Minister in Northern Zhou during the reigns of two emperors, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou and Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou. He was Emperor Xuan’s father-in-law, and after his death took power as a regent. After getting the throne, Yang Jian faced resistance from the general Yuchi Jiong but defeated him and killed Zhou royal princes. Yang Jian established the new dynasty and became an Emperor Wen of Sui. He was the first Chinese ruler of North China since the Xianbei invasion.
After the fall of the Sui dynasty, the power came to the Tang dynasty. The last two stages of the Sui dynastic cycle, deceleration and extinction, marked the rise of the Li family that belonged to military aristocrats. The Tang dynasty was established by Li Yuan from the Li family, or Emperor Gaozu of Tang, in 618. Li Yuan participated in the rebellion against Emperor Yang of Sui and took power from Emperor Gong of Sui, the last emperor of the Sui dynasty. Thus, the similarities in the first stage of the Sui and Tang dynastic cycles become clear. In both cases, the power was abdicated, and its abdication was related to killings and violence.
Now let’s move to the next point and consider the second stage of the dynastic cycle, the consolidation. The consolidation is the result of the dynasty’s achievements and policies. During the time of its existence, the Sui dynasty had only four Emperors, and the dynasty’s peak as well as the longest reign related to the rule of the founder of the dynasty Emperor Wen of Sui. The Tang dynasty, on the contrary, had more than twenty rulers, and, quoting Hsin T’ang shu, Yang states that only three of them were remarkable, and two of the three failed closer to the end of their rule. The second ruler of the Tang dynasty, Emperor Taizong of Tang, who was the co-founder of the dynasty and the son of the Emperor Gaozu, is considered to be not just the greatest Emperor in the dynasty but one of the greatest Emperors in Chinese history.
According to Yang, a dynasty may undergo several rises and falls before the complete fall and the closing of the circle. This statement is not suitable for the Sui dynasty as its existence was short. As it was mentioned above, the Sui dynasty raised and reached its peak under the rule of Emperor Wen. The first thing Emperor Wen of Sui did when came to power was the abolishment of Zhou policies and the winning of Confucian scholars’ support. The rule of Wen was marked with the policies aimed to unify Northern and Southern Chinese dynasties and the economic reforms aimed to increase the level of life and to stabilize economy including the equal allocation system and the reduction of the taxes raised from peasants. On the contrary, Yang’s statement is true for the Tang dynasty that existed about nine times longer than the Sui and lasted almost three centuries. For instance, the transitional failures can refer to the rule of Empress Wu and the interruption of the Tang reign by the Zhou dynasty (684-705).
Yang writes that the basis to measure the dynasty’s success includes military and civil achievements, or unity and expansion, and peace and prosperity. Both dynasties achieved their goals in both spheres to a greater or lesser extent. It is important to mention that the short rule of the Sui dynasty formed a basis for the further achievements of the Tang one. Also, it is interesting to compare the order of peaks in different areas including economic, military, social, etc. In the case of the Sui dynasty, the military peak was achieved first. The main aim of Emperor Wen was to unite Northern and Southern China as well as Chinese ethnic groups. Those times, the southeast of China was under the control of the Chen dynasty. To defeat the Chen dynasty, Emperor Wen hired several Chinese ethnic groups including Xianbein and Sichuan and started the campaign for southern invasion. In 589, Chen surrendered, and the Southern China came under the rule of Emperor Wen. The reunification of China significantly eased further development of the country. Under Emperor Wen’s rule, China had the most powerful army in the world. It is important to note that the times of the Sui and the Tang dynasties are considered to be “a low-incidence period for wars” including only about ninety wars in total that were fought between the Sui and Tang dynasties on the one side and different nomadic groups on the other side.
In the case of the Tang dynasty, the peak of the civil achievements was reached together with the military peak. The rule of Emperor Taizong was marked with the prosperity of Chinese Empire, the development of trade and the Silk Road, and the new government system. At the same time, Emperor Taizong was a talented strategist, and the period of his rule was also marked with the foundation of the Tang military power that was used for Chinese expansion. During the rule of the Tang dynasty, the expansion of China and Chinese control spilled over from Tibet to Mongolia and North Korea. The military power remained the strongest and dominant until the end of the rule of Empress Wu Zetian.
Both the Sui dynasty and the Tang dynasty followed the same path regarding the unity of China and Chinese expansion. Indeed, the Tang dynasty succeeded much more, but the major reason of this lied in the longer reign and in the preceding failures of the Sui dynasty that Tang could notice and correct. For instance, one of such failures referred to the avoidance of military service. Men who did not want to join the army intentionally broke their limbs. Emperor Yang of Sui did not have any laws regarding this issue, and when Emperor Gaozu came to power, he hardened the punishment for the divergent. At the same time, both the Sui and the Tang dynasties had strong armies and significant civil achievements. Emperor Gaozu used Emperor Wen’s policies and achievements as a basis for the further development. He significantly improved the economic environment and the government structure of the country. Emperor Wen constructed the Grand Canal, and the Tang dynasty used it for the expansion of the eastern trade. During the rule of the Tang dynasty, Chinese capital Chang’an became one of the most cosmopolitan world cities. However, it is important to note the role of the city of Kaifeng that was located close to the center of the North China Plane and had access to the Grand Canal. According to Skinner, Kaifeng gave birth to “one of the most dramatic cycles of economic development.” The development of Kaifeng as a powerful commercial and transportation center is strongly connected with the late Tang policies and the relaxation of economic controls. The time periods of the Sui and the Tang rule were marked by the construction of cities in northeastern and eastern areas of China.
Now let’s move to the next steps of the dynastic cycle, the deceleration and the extinction. According to Yang, the end of each dynasty takes up the question of chung-hsing, or “revival or restoration.” This question directly refers to the idea of rises and falls that take place before the full completion of the dynasty circle. As it was mentioned above, the existence of the Sui dynasty lasted only for thirty-eight years and had no additional rises and falls except the ones referring to the circle. The Tang dynasty, on the contrary, experienced several rises and falls. In its late period, the Tang dynasty underwent four important rebellions including the famous An Lushan rebellion that took place in 755-763 and led to the significant deceleration of the Tang dynasty harming the effectiveness and the reputation of the central government. That deceleration could lead to the end of the dynasty, but it was restored by Emperor Suzong of Tang. However, the restoration of the Tang dynasty at its last years of existence was not possible and became a full part of the dynastic cycle.
The deceleration of the Sui dynasty started with the death of Emperor Wen and the rise to power of his son, Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang was not so smart and talented as his father and led the Sui dynasty to its fall. When he came to power, he wanted to continue the construction projects started by his father including the reconstruction of the Great Wall of China. Indeed, that was a great project, as it pursued military goals and raised the international profile of China. However, the reconstruction significantly affected the state of the Chinese economy and made the employed workers angry. With the course of time, social disaffections rose and influenced farmers that started to revolt. Their revolts resulted in the damage of the agricultural sector that affected Chinese economy even more. At the same time, Emperor Yang of Sui held several unsuccessful military campaigns against the Korean Kingdom Goguryeo. The economic strain and military losses continued to affect civilians and resulted in the rebellion that led to the assassination of Emperor Yang and to the creation of the Tang dynasty.
The extinction of the Tang dynasty happened under the rule of the last Tang Emperor, Emperor Ai of Tang. However, the last capable ruler of the Tang dynasty was Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, as the following rulers were too young or were under the control of warlords and eunuchs. Being close to its end, the Tang dynasty experienced both external and internal conflicts. The internal conflicts included the dominant power of eunuchs, the conflicts that took place among various cliques, and Fanzhen. Generally, during the Tang dynasty, eunuchs had a lot of power, and that assumption at the hands of the Tang rulers was a mistake. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang gave eunuchs a right to serve as high officials, and, as the result, some of them gained more power than ministers and princes and got the control under the military and royal power. With the extension of their power, eunuchs were able to stand over the national policies and the government placing the Tang rulers under their control and affecting the central regime. The central regime was also affected by the political system of the country. The Tang government had two major groups of officials. One of them included the representatives of the noble class, and the other one consisted of the civilian class. Indeed, these groups had different views on the issues, and, as the result, they formed two different parties that always argued with each other and became the reasons for internal conflicts. These conflicts, in turn, affected the power of the central regime. One more internal conflict referred to the power and actions of Fanzhen. After the An Shi rebellion, the Tang dynasty established the post of Jiedushi, the regional military governor responsible for the security of the borders and the defense of the central regime. Jiedushi got too much power, and it resulted in the creation of Fanzhen, the separatist regime that conflicted with the central court and led to the weakening of the central government.
It is important to note one more reason of the fall of the Tang dynasty. The only external conflict that led to the collapse of the Tang dynasty was the peasants’ uprising. In the end of the Tang period, China experienced serious land annexations. The endless wars led to the increases of taxations, and peasants were oppressed by their landlords. Under the rule of Emperor Xizong of Tang, the production of food significantly decreased, and the taxes remained high. All of that resulted in the rebellions. One of the most famous rebellions of those times led by Huang Chao affected the Tang dynasty and led to its deceleration and future fall.
So, what were the reasons for the decline and collapse of the Sui and Tang dynasties? In his work, Fan reviews several previous publications regarding the issue that one of the reasons for the fall of the Tang dynasty may have been global cooling. At the same time, quoting Young-tsu, he writes that the beginnings of the Tang dynasty, or the fall of the Sui, had also been caused by climate changes; with the cooling of the climate, the harvest decreased and the hunger increased leading to the increasing of social disaffections. Indeed, the influence of the climate should not be underestimated. According to Su et al., the climate has an impact on the appearing of wars and military conflicts including the ones happened at the times of the Sui and Tang. However, the falls of the dynasties and the whole dynastic cycle are the result of the human actions to a far greater degree.
As Usher writes, the beginning of the dynastic cycle is always marked by prosperity and peace, and its end implies to wars, miseries, and anger. The same happened in the case of the Sui and Tang. The major aim of the new dynasty is the solving of the problems that were left after the previous dynasty, but each new dynasty creates the new problems that it cannot solve. When these problems reach its peak, the dynasty collapses. Usher writes that there are three social classes, and they include farmers, bandits, and rulers. When the problems reach its peak and the disaffection becomes too strong, farmers turn into bandits and give birth to anarchy. After the elimination of the previous dynasty and the establishing of the new one, the need to control anarchy appears. This need is called despotism. Bandits become farmers, and at first, both the dynasty and the civilians live in peace. However, when the dynasty reaches its limits, the peace ends, and despotism manifests itself and gives birth to anarchy and the repetition of the dynastic circle. The same happened in the case of the Sui and the Tang dynasties. Aimed to solve the issues and failures of the previous rulers, they made lots of own mistakes.
Skinner suggests imagining that Chinese history looks like a hierarchical structure with hierarchies of local and regional systems. These systems should be accepted as the ways and results of the human interaction. At the same time, a dynastic cycle should be analyzed in whole, with all turning points and proper location in the hierarchy. This means that the Chinese history hierarchies and dynastic cycles include the entire range of causes, acts, actions, and failures, and all of them influence the rises and falls of the dynasties. However, every decision is made by a human, so the human factor plays a crucial role here.
In conclusion, one can note that despite the fact the Sui and Tang dynasties seemed to be different, they had a number of similarities. These similarities included the beginnings of the dynasties, the views on the Chinese development, constructions and city buildings, military successes, economic reformations, etc. It is important to understand that the Sui and Tang followed the same path, but made mistakes and collapsed. Indeed, the history of the Tang counts more rises, falls, mistakes, and successes than the Sui, but this does not influence the major idea: the dynastic cycle closes when the problems created by the dynasty become global and cannot be solved without external power. Each of the cycles experienced by China created and exterminated the dynasties that should have solved old problems without the creation of the new ones. However, as an ancient Chinese proverb says, “After a long split, a union will occur; after a long union, a split will occur.” The solutions and failures of Chinese dynasties formed a basis for the modern China its history.
Bibliography
Fan, Ka-wai. “Climatic Change and Dynastic Cycles in Chinese History: a Review Essay.” Climatic Change 101 (2010): 565-573.
Skinner, G.William. “Presidential Address: The Structure of Chinese History.” The Journal of Asian Studies 44.2 (1985): 271-292.
Su, Y., Liu, L., Fang, X.Q., and Y.N. Ma. “The Relationship between Climate Change and Wars Waged between Nomadic and Farming Groups from the Western Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty Period.” Climate of the Past 12 (2016): 137-150.
Usher, Dan. “The Dynastic Cycle and the Stationary State.” The American Economic Review 79.5 (1989): 1031-1044.
Yang, Lien-sheng. “Toward a Study of Dynastic Configurations in Chinese History.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 17.3/4 (1954): 329-345.
