Both Nathan Glazer, in “The Emergence of an American Ethnic Pattern”, and Ronald Takaki, in “Reflections on Racial Patterns in America”, argue that racism has been an enduring legacy of the United States, dating back more than 200 years or more, at least to the Colonial Era and the American Revolution. Both Glazer and Takaki aver that early colonists were threatened by the immigration of other peoples, as well as the assimilation of natives, to the newly-formed United States of America. Thus, strides towards the melding of different cultures into one nation were hampered by both fear and prejudice. Both essayists analyze America’s history of racism through very different lenses, and are at considerable odds in how successful American policies have been at addressing racism, and how ethnicities, particularly racial groups, have been traditionally treated by the powers-that-be. Whereas Glazer’s argument is built upon a foundation of idyllic equality as underscored in both the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution, Takaki’s argument is far more convincing, and indicates a more thorough understanding of just how profound America’s advocacy of systemized racism has been over the past two centuries.
Glazer’s essay focuses primarily on the addressing and remediation of enduring racism, as well as the lack of access to equal opportunity caused by racism. For example, he points out that the Civil Rights Act of 1964, along with other new laws of the land, effectively put an end to racism because they were now recognized as Federal Law (Glazer, 11). Moreover, Glazer argues that America was founded on ideals and principles that included “the rejection of ethnic exclusivity” (Glazer, 13). Thus, Glazer contends that American principles, especially those outlined by Thomas Jefferson, helped create immigration policies that opened the doors for full acceptance of new European settlers, especially those who sought refuge from oppressive governments (Glazer, 14). Hence, Glazer paints a portrait of one American nation, where ethnic groups were simultaneously integrated into the fabric of one nation, but also prevented from forming political groups based upon ethnic belonging (Glazer, 14). Ultimately, Glazer concludes that, in the effort to redress the grievances of every ethnic group, the ideal of one American nation has been compromised by its classification of individuals according to their belonging to groups defined by race and/or ethnicity (Glazer, 22). With little forethought, the great American experiment has taken the wrong course.
On the other hand, Ronald Takaki views America’s de jure (and de facto) history of oft-brutal racism and discrimination through a completely different lens. Beginning his essay with the landmark affirmative action case in 1974 that pitted Alan Bakke against UC-Davis in a “reverse discrimination” lawsuit, Takaki points out that Glazer, as a staunch advocate of “anti-affirmative action”, advocates systemized racism (Takaki, 24). Takaki takes Glazer’s main premise to task, i.e that racism should be considered one case at a time, as in Bakke’s lawsuit. That is, racial and ethnic groups, as Glazer’s argument goes, had no right to form a polity. In his refutation of Glazer’s argument, Takaki contends that historical evidence does not support the theory of an American “trend” toward greater racial equality, and “inclusiveness” – notwithstanding Federal laws (Takaki, 25). From black slavery, forced Chinese labor, Indian genocide, to Japanese interment during World War II, Takaki refutes every major point that Glazer attempts to make, in light of evidence to the contrary (Takaki, 25). Takaki sets the stage for his conclusion that racism must be addressed, and subsequently redressed on a group level, rather than one individual at a time.
I wholeheartedly agree with Takaki’s counter-argument. Systemized racism is the root of discrimination towards individuals, and such racism is based on group membership. Thus, black people belong to a racial group, referred to as “blacks”. No one, including the government, uses a more specific ethnic designation for black people, such as “Nigerian” to indicate their ethnicity. To the degree that anyone belongs to a racial group, that is generally what they are considered as individuals. Thus, it flies in the face of logic that the black race is not composed of black individuals. However, as Takaki notes, Glazer tends to use the words “ethnic” and “race” interchangeably, thereby articulating a specious argument – one that considers whites an ethnic group as well (Takaki, 25). Whites, are, in fact, a race, but Brits, Poles, Germans, and Italians are examples of ethnic groups. Therefore, Glazer’s argument that Bakke’s case is one of “reverse discrimination” is a contradiction in terms because Glazer insists that white “ethnic groups” must be treated equally, yet he simultaneously denies the experiences of separate racial groups under the banner of one American identity. Glazer’s attempts to play with semantics are both confusing and manipulative.
Moreover, Takaki bases his counter-argument on details, whereas Glazer extrapolates evidence for trends based upon the legislation of equality – as opposed to the reality of how systemized racism still affects racial groups. For example, no one can dispute that the Founding Fathers – all of them – were slaveholders, and that the Constitution reinforced the notion of white male entitlement. Then, black people were counted as 3/5 of a person during population censuses.
Finally, Glazer’s argument is rife with an undercurrent of racism. He fails to consider the actuality of white male privilege, and his perspective of white male entitlement is all too evident. Takaki shows evidence of an America characterized by brutal subordination of non-white people, a legacy of inequality and marginalization that persists to this day. Thus, Takaki portrays facts, whereas Glazer distorts facts in order to prove his argument’s claim.
References
Glazer, Nathan. “The Emergence of an American Ethnic Pattern.” Affirmative Discrimination: Ethnic Inequality and Public Policy. 1975. Web. 21 Mar, 2016.
Takaki, Ronald. “Reflections of Racial Patterns in America: An Historical Perspective.” Ethnicity and Public Policy 1. 1982. Web. 21 Mar, 2016.
