The issue of conservation has been dominating the agenda of environmentalists in the recent decades, and the two articles under consideration provide insights into adverse and side effects of forest conservation and establishment of biosphere reserves. Generally, Paul Greenough discusses advantages and flaws of biosphere reserves and protected area networks that have been a crucial purpose of conservationists. The author argues that enclosing new territories of forests into protected areas and reserves allows not only for survival of animal and plant species but also for blossoming criminal activity. Providing examples of Mexican biosphere reserves and India’s Project Tiger turning a large portion of the country into a network of protected areas, Greenough illustrates how conservation efforts aimed at preservation of biodiversity, flora and fauna result in criminal activity, forced relocation of people and, in fact, lack of control over these areas. In addition, the author argues that humankind’s conservation efforts might result in so-called bio-ironies. Megan Ybarra, in turn, also focuses on territorial and conservation projects as the way of making forests political. Ybarra’s article focuses on the forests of Guatemala where the largest conservation initiatives turned out to be connected with the military and involve violent exclusion of inhabitants from the territories of newly established reserves. The article discusses political and military conditions that lead to establishments of the biosphere reserve that covers one-third of Guatemala. Moreover, Ybarra argues that cooperation of the military and conservationists in the matters of forest conservation makes the forest political and perpetuates social inequalities.
Although Ybarra and Greenough start their argumentation from different points, the key purpose of both articles appears the same. Both authors provide ample evidence to support their claims about adverse effects of conservation and concomitant politicization of natural reserves. Particularly, both authors elucidate the impact of conservation projects on inhabitants of the areas intended for conservation regardless of the reasons for conservation. Greenough’s argument is broader in scale due to variety of examples and empirical material used to illustrate bio-ironies: the author focuses on India’s Project Tiger and yet includes examples from Mexico and other areas. Ybarra, in turn, provides a comprehensive historical account of conservation and political matters in Guatemala. In the country, forests have become both endangered and ‘dangerous’ places during the civil war: for the military, forests became the battleground for violent counterinsurgency initiatives and the territory with potential for conservation due to the threat of deforestation. The mentioned arguments do not include numerous additional factors such as squatters, loggers and drug traffickers. Greenough, in turn, expresses very reasonable concerns on bio-ironies and effects of conservation. According to the author, meticulous control over conservation conditions created for India’s tigers results in occasional damage inflicted by the animals to the neighboring settlements. Even more, both Ybarra and Greenough seek to turn attention to the problem of politicization of these reserves and conservation projects. That is, these conservation efforts politicize control over forests, over nature, and result in expulsion of local residents who not only do not pose threat for protected species but also are able to live in relative harmony with their natural habitats. While Guatemalan military are reported to continue with alternative versions of counterinsurgency plans to keep the “wat on drugs” going, India’s government crosses the line in inhumane policies towards Gujars, nearly ancient inhabitants of conservation areas. As a result, the authors question reasonability of such conservation measures.
Works Cited
Greenough, Paul. “Bio-ironies of the fractured forest: India’s tiger reserves.” In In Search of the Rain Forest, edited by Candace Slater, (pp. 167-204). Duke University Press
Ybarra, Megan. “Taming the jungle, saving the Maya Forest: sedimented counterinsurgency practices in contemporary Guatemalan conservation.” Journal of Peasant Studies 39.2 (2012), pp. 479-502.
