Immigration from Asia, Africa and Latin America to Europe
The purpose of this paper is a complex study of migration processes from Asia, Latin America and Africa to European countries. Special attention will be paid to analyses of economical and other activities of immigrants, influence of their remittances on condition of payments balance of donor and recipient countries, questions of labor regulation and limitation of illegal migration due to criminal elements and shady economy. There are several research problems that we will tackle within this paper. We are interested in main reasons of migration from Africa, Asia and Latin America to European Union, estimation of its volume and dynamism. We will study structure of immigration streams, size of immigration population, social and economical structure of illegal immigration. It is also interesting to find out the influence of immigration from the mentioned countries on EU countries, on the economy of donor and recipient countries because there seems to be an evident relationship between immigration processes and formation of labor market, demographical situation, shady sector of economy and other parameters of social and economic development. There is also an interesting experience of EU countries of how to combat illegal immigration from the mentioned countries on a detailed systematic way.
DESCRIPTION OF MIGRATION ISSUE
International migration of workforce and people looking for better life is nowadays a key problem in modern epoch of globalization. Transition of workforce between countries stipulated by structural changes in economic and overflow of inputs, connect national labor markets into sole market supplying circulation of work and services within global economic space. Development of globalization process enforces migration streams. According to United Nations Report (2013) common number of international immigrants, i.e. persons living outside countries of birth has exceeded 200 million people amounting to 3% of world population which is double times greater than 25 years ago. Around 40 million people are natives of African continent with one third are natives of North Africa, the rest coming from Asia and Latin America. More often immigration takes place from countries with less developed economy to countries with more developed economy. In the last quarter of XX century to the traditional centers of migration attraction (USA and Canada) were added new countries of European Union. Migration streams between countries of African continent, Latina America, Asia and EU can be marked by high intensity. This can be determined by several factors: geography, like in case with Africa especially with North regions of Africa; close economic, cultural and political connections which took place in the epoch of colonial dependency; and changes which took place within The Barcelona Process frame.
Active migration to Europe is provoked by fact that demographically aging Europe is compensating natural loss of population at the expense of countries with excessive demographical growth. However European Union which takes the first place on the physical volume of migration processes did not develop a single mutual approach to migration policy. Process of depopulation in the majority of European countries is now getting more real during the last 10 years which is manifested in net reduction of population and growing deficit of its economically active part (Graph 1). Both can have heavy consequences for economy, social sphere and politics. Increase in life expectancy, decrease of births, and forthcoming wave of pension expense in EU countries are capable of crushing the budgets of these countries. By “importing taxpayers”, especially from Asia, Latin America and Asia, aging European communities ease their tax burden. At the same time immigrants from Asia, Africa and Latin America in most cases counter-balance social consequences of structural reforms which take place in EU countries within the last 30 years like unemployment rate growth and aggravation of social inequality. Immigrants follow up their transition to developed countries with powerful money remittances back to their homes, which serve as an efficient antipoverty measure and additional sources of financing within the countries delivering these immigrants. Upon the whole making up of a mutual labor market in EU countries is going at a slow rate because this market is highly dependent on individual peculiarities of people’s perception of economy and social life.
Functioning of global economy is provided by active forming of international labor market. One of the most important mechanisms of labor market development is international migration. It is very smoothly involved in global problems context transforming into an integral part of modern system of world economy. Immigration process is in fact “social face of globalization”. Trying to rethink the place and the role of immigration in modern society brought us to the necessity to consider this phenomenon in its connection with objective tendencies of international labor market formation which determines quite a new quality of immigration process. Functioning of international labor market is provided by mobility broadening of two production factors: labor and capital. Labor immigration from Latin America, Asia and Africa to EU countries is one of the most important conditions of forming and seamless functioning of European labor market. Without this labor force it is impossible for the European market to achieve decrease of production costs, increase of competitive abilities in national economies. Import of labor from Latin America, Asia and Africa to EU countries, alongside with export of capital from Europe help to form the global market of cheap labor. Immigration streams from mentioned countries on European continent can be distinguished by high intensity and have a constant tendency to grow. According to United Nations data (2010), share of immigrants in Europe in 2010 comprise around 32,6% of the total number of international migrants and is about 69,2 million of people and already 72,4 million people in 2013 (Graph 2). However, estimated by European countries this number can be much larger moreover, constantly increasing. These differences in calculation can be determined by both possibility of citizenship acquiring by immigrants in Europe and impossibility to count the number of illegal immigrants. African immigrants comprise the largest group in Europe numbering to around 7 million (United Nations Report, 2013). E.g. among African immigrants the largest group is people from Morocco and Algeria with greatest concentration of these immigrants in France. Another big portion of immigration force has come from Latin America, latter found food and shelter mainly in Spain as having common cultural and language roots. According to data from report of International Organization for Migration prepared by Adela Pellegrino (2004), the number of immigrants only in years 1995-2003 Latin America population in Spain increased from 92,642 to 514,485 and continue to increase dramatically each year. Annual remittance from Spain to Latin America countries amount to 1 billion dollars with another billion being remitted from the rest of Europe. This tendency is growing each year while remittance systems are being constantly improved and Latin America diaspora is growing. Latin America immigrants to Europe are highly feminized; women comprise more than half of immigration workforce (Graph 3). If we look on the whole percentage of female migrants distinguished by age and region we will see an evident tendency that both in developed and developing countries number of females in all age groups is constantly increasing (Graph 4)..
In global meaning the largest immigrant groups come out of Asian regions. In 2013 Asian immigrants according to UN migration report (2013) comprise 19 million people living in Europe. Upon the whole the majority of legal immigrants from Asia, Africa and Latin America are concentrated in 6 countries of European Union. These are France, Spain, Italy, Holland, Great Britain and Germany (Graph 5). These countries receive up to 60% of all immigrants. What illegal immigration is concerned there is no exhaustive information on this account. Average number of illegal workforce in Europe equals to 5-7 million people. The number of illegal immigrants is counted only approximately and this number differs in various European sources. Majority of illegal immigrants is concentrated also in biggest EU countries: France, Germany, Italy and Spain. In each of the mentioned countries live approximately 1-1,5 million of illegal workers and annually this number increase by 100 thousand people. The biggest corridor for illegal migration comes from North African countries via Morocco and Gibraltar to Spain and from this place spread to other European countries (Collet, 2013).. Another corridor of illegal migration takes place from Turkey and Kurdistan via Greece and Albania to Italy. Italy and Spain are two main transit points for biggest illegal immigration streams. Record-breaking migration year for European countries was 2011; the year of “Arabian revolutions” when during the first 9 months of 2011 European migration service has registered more than 113 thousand of illegal border crossings (Morehouse at al., 2011). Upon the whole illegal immigration in EU has increased lately and exceeded 6% of all immigrants coming to Europe creating quite a sensitive social tension because illegal workforce having no employment possibilities get involved in criminal activity and terroristic organizations. According to UN reports, Population Division (2013) the number of immigrants to EU has increased during the last 10 years more than twice increasing European population on 40% and composing 10-15% of European workforce. Nowadays immigrants from Latin America, Asia and Africa are the most important part of all European market of labor resource.
Demographical reasons of immigration.
Another reason of active migration policy of EU countries is demographical problem in old Europe. Population of European countries is aging. Demographically aging EU countries have to compensate for natural population decrease at the expense of incoming immigrants from main overpopulated donor continents. According to World Population Policies Database (2013) global labor market will increase to 3,4 billion people in 2015. Decrease of native population of employable age in majority of developed countries and first of all European countries is forecasted in the nearest 40 years. Comparing natural increase in population in developed and developing regions (Graph 6) shows pretty well the dynamic of natural increase contribution and net migration to total population change in Europe within the decades and we have a clear understanding of how pessimistic is situation about natural increase in population in Europe if there is no migration. Thus annual growth of labor resources will compose 40 million people and 38 million of this growth will be given by developing countries and only 2 million by developed. In order to compensate for missing labor hands European countries will attract immigrants from overpopulated developing countries especially from the countries which are considered former colonies. Demographical deficit in EU countries does not mean sweeping employment of everyone who will find a new place attractive. In the last years a graded approach of recipient countries is adapted. There are strict demands to professional and qualification level of immigrants. Priority is given to specialists in innovational sphere and technology intensive branches of economics, and then preference is given to specialists of secondary level technologies which suffer a shortage of qualified personnel.
Income and Business Reasons for Immigration
One of the main reasons for population migration from developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America to developed countries of Europe is a huge gap in income of working population. Some countries in Africa have income 32-44 times less per capita than in Europe. Situation in Latin America and Asia is a little bit better but cannot be compared to income per capita in Europe. Therefore immigration is an only way for poor population of developing countries to improve their life conditions and change the life of their families for the better.
Besides, entrepreneurs of developed countries are interested in using of immigrant’s labor. It is stipulated, first of all, by urge to decrease production costs (to be more exact expenses on labor force), and by necessity to attract immigrants during the periods of intensive production growth when there is deficit of labor force especially in production spheres, connected with heavy physical and/or unfavorable working conditions. In economy globalization epoch decrease of production costs is the most important condition of competition on local and international markets. Today in EU countries production costs spend on native labor force calculated per hour of work is 20-30% higher than in Japan or USA and 2-3 times higher than in South-East Asian countries (Hong Kong, Singapore, Republic of Korea, etc), not to mention poorest regions of the world, so we have a picture of severe income inequality in developed and developing countries (Graph 7). This situation is painful for European countries because its economy to a greater extent is oriented on external markets. Therefore majority of West European companies strive to attract cheapest workforce possible especially the ones from Asia, Africa and Latin America to work for export branches of economy.
Religion, politics and social life as reasons for immigration
Flow of immigrants from the mentioned countries to EU can be explained not only by economical factors but also by political, religious, ecological, family and social factors. Modern immigration from poor countries to European Union is formed from heterogeneous migration streams which are predetermined by differentiation of their economical and social impact on recipient societies. Part of these streams is initiated by the recipient country itself and therefore toughly regulated but the substantial share of immigrant population is coming to EU on humanitarian grounds and/or arrive illegally bypassing screening and control measures. We can distinguish four categories in the structure of migration streams: economical immigrants, reuniting family members, refugees and illegal immigrants. Correlation between these categories is varying substantially in different countries; however, economical immigrants compose around 50% of all immigrant force in European Union. While Latin America immigrants arrive to EU mainly for reasons of family reuniting and economical reasons, immigrants from Asia and Africa arrive mainly as refugees escaping from wars, poverty and social cataclysms in their home countries and illegally. Therefore taking into consideration the relatively low share of immigrants arriving to EU with motivation to work, the volume and structure of immigration workforce does not always correspond to the economical needs of the recipient society. Influence of this factor on level of economical activity and on correlation of employed and unemployed part of society has a dual character. In national structure of immigrants prevail as a rule groups which are ethnically stand aside from the native population of the recipient country. Nonethnic population experiences difficulties in adaptation in new societies due to deep mental and cultural peculiarities, alternative types of demographical behavior of immigrants (many children in family, traditional patterns of child upbringing, etc).The latter circumstance makes the recipient countries of EU bear additional expenses. Besides, active use of traditional, alternative means of trade moulds business activities based on ethnical solidarity (ethnic economy), forming “shady markets” of labor which act as mechanism of illegal usage of cheap labor force in order to increase individual profits. Though level of education and professional qualification of immigrants has an evident tendency to improve, it is still quite low in comparison to native specialists.
Over the last years together with quantitative changes quite a substantial qualitative changes in migration processes to EU also took place. First of all we should mention that the share of young people, women and children in migration streams is constantly increasing. The share of young people under 25 years old is more than 25% and the share of women immigrants – 30%, which shows the tendency of feminization in immigration processes of which we spoke earlier. Duration of residence in the recipient country has also increased and equals to 10 years and in countries like Germany to 20 years. Immigration of scientists and highly qualified specialists from Africa, Asia and Latin America to EU countries is also increasing. Brain drain from mentioned countries can be estimated in 100 thousand people annually with general financial damage to home countries equaling to 50-60 billion dollars. There are special educational programs in Africa, Asia and Latin America. These countries send around 40-50 thousand young people to developed European countries each year to get higher professional education, however, not all young people decide to come back home when studies come to an end. Another educational program works in European Union which attracts young people from poor countries in different continents in order to prepare highly qualified professionals for future promotions on EU labor markets. Scales of individual migration of professionals and businessmen is also broadening. Business-migration is a new category of immigrants; these people invest money to European economy and thus acquire residence permit (United Nations Report, 2013).
IMPACT OF IMMIGRATION PROCESS ON EU COUNTRIES
Consequences of such intensive immigration process to Europe are manifold and complex for both donor and recipient countries. These tendencies influence the level of wages, welfare, labor market, production volumes, taxes and state spending.
Estimation of immigration influence on economical growth is ambiguous. Majority of fulfilled researches justify that immigrant influence on economical growth is positive (Somerville W. et al., 2009). Thus for European Union increase of pure migration on 1 unit is directly connected with growth rate of economy on 0,1%. Increase of population at immigrants’ cost can lead to 1,15% growth of GDP. Creating added value in a country of residence, immigrants consume products and services. Arising multiplier effect in its turn provokes economical growth. Some immigrants invest in own business which has an evident positive effect on country’s economy.
Average level of wages in EU countries decreases as a result of immigrants’ inflow. When a great number of immigrants penetrate onto local markets they dump the price of labor making it cheaper especially using this labor force in segments in which national workforce prefer not to work. Immigrants tend to keep wages low (especially in cases when illegal workforce is used). Thus hypothesis of whether increasing number of immigrants in EU constantly decreases the wages seems to be true in for academic research papers (Kerr S.P.& Kerr W.R.,2013). Scale of immigration directly influences tax revenue and government expenditures. Taxes are growing at expense of qualified immigrant specialists because their wages are higher while budget expenses to train and teach them are not demanded. At the same time major part of unqualified immigrants needs government support which increase budget expenditures of European recipient countries. Position of illegal immigrants in EU stops them from using social support, allowances and charitable payments, therefore government expenditures on this category of immigrants is negligible. Immigration to EU influences on condition of labor market of countries exporting labor force. Due to overpopulation and low social standards of living Asian, African and Latin American countries have unfavorable economic climate and high rates of unemployment. Outflow of a certain share of population to more developed regions solve the problem unemployment and decrease social tensions in society. However “brain drain” has negative effect on the economy of donor countries because this country loses not only scientific potential but had to spend additional costs educating new specialists.
Recently international organizations switch on actively in the process of academic development and realization of immigration problems helping exporting countries to manage their migration streams. In EU countries consider fund creation in cooperation with African, Asian and Latin American countries which will help to prevent mass migration from these regions. These funds should aim to improve educational system and finance realization of mutual projects concerning creation of new jobs, organization of training courses network helping poorest layers of society to adapt European experience in different professional fields. Upon the whole mass inflow of immigrants, legal or illegal, from Asia, Africa and Latin America to Europe allowed, from one hand, to smooth acute problem of workforce shortage in low-paid and non- prestigious spheres of national economy of developed European countries but from the other hand created mass of unsolved social and economical problems. Ethnic enclaves of African, Latin American and Asian immigrants have integrated into political and economical structures of recipient countries as closed groups not trying to assimilate with native population however, making claims for all social benefits. Besides these enclaves often serve as bases for forming and rapid development of criminal structures, shady economy and in some instances terroristic activities. Every now and then interethnic conflicts in recipient countries are taking place e.g. mass riots in France and Germany. Mainly this problem arises due to increasing isolation of immigrants for a number of reasons. First, existing communities are constantly supplemented by newcomers from countries of origin. Second natural increase of immigrant population is pretty high, exceeding average birth ratios of recipient countries. As a result it is very difficult to assimilate ever increasing number of immigrants with local population. “Anclavity” principle is not, however, an absolute tendency in immigrant community because attempts to assimilate are getting stronger for younger generations of immigrants (Graph 8). It can be shown via the increasing number of interethnic mixed marriages.
European countries have a strong need in quite a new concept considering immigration in a positive way rather than in negative. It is evident that policy of sharp limitation in immigration is at odds with economical, social and demographical situation in developed European countries. Instead of trying to prevent immigration it is necessary to control and screen it in accordance with needs of recipient countries in labor resources, encouraging labor migration and limiting illegal one. It is also necessary to underline the importance of impact on the reasons causing mass outflow of immigrants from their countries of birth.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE STUDY
Main goal of EU countries in migration policy should be obtaining of maximum positive economical, political and social effect from migration by means of creating favorable conditions for immigrants and naturalizing of those foreign population categories whose residence in recipient countries serve the interests of the country resisting illegal immigration in every possible way. Illegal uncontrollable immigration is the main threat to national security of recipient EU countries because these groups of people are not recorded in public organs; they are excluded from official labor systems, taxation and social security. Illegal migration nourishes shady sectors of European economy provoking aggravation of ethnical conflicts, criminality and epidemiology fueling xenophobia and nationalism. At the same time lopsided repressive migration policy in Europe is not able to stop ever increasing inflow of immigrants pushing to illegal position those immigrants who in other conditions could become legal and law obedient people. Tough migration policy influence professional structure of immigrants stimulating the inflow of low qualified workforce. We can assume that EU countries will only benefit if revise international migration policy in direction of democratization. More studies should be carried out in order to find a flexible and safe model of migration policy. Among the problems which should be investigated are problems of inner administrative barriers to labor migration. EU countries should support development of special programs facilitating the legal migration including personal loan programs for immigrants, development of infrastructure and affordable housing markets considering demographical forecasting for markets of labor force. We already have positive example in EU countries like Sweden. This Scandinavian country has dramatically changed its immigration policy allowing employers to hire necessary amount of immigrant workers. This reform should beyond any doubt set an example for other EU countries. Even USA and Canada are interested to overtake this experience.
It is also worth mentioning that international cooperation in migration sphere is extremely important. Europe failed an examination to alter migration policy in the previous years, notorious of “Arab revolutions” and social cataclysms because EU countries did not manage to open doors to young people, ambitious students, entrepreneurs and other highly perspective representatives of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Today Europe tries to pay more attention to their neighbors by introducing free trade agreements, simplified procedures of visa acquiring for students and participants of different educational and short time labor programs and offering different stimuli for entrepreneurs. There are not so many countries which are totally isolated from migration therefore for any developed country the question of migration policy is of paramount importance and this question cannot be solved single-handedly. Europe has a lot of work to do to overcome the negative attitude to immigrants which was formed by public opinion during decades. Europe has to ruin myths about migration. Migration is changing on many parameters and we have to create structures and methods which would meet the requests of new realia because human mobility could become the greatest asset of the XXI century.
Works Cited
Collet E., Facing 2020: Developing a New European Agenda for immigration and Asylum Policy, Policy Brief Series, Research from Migration Policy Institute Europe, February 2013. Print
International Migration Report 2013, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations, ST/ESA/SER.A/346 December 2013. Print
Kerr S.P., Kerr W.R., Economic Impacts of Immigration: A Survey, Working Paper, Harvard Business School, 2013. Print
Migration from Latin America to Europe: Trends and Policy Challenges, for International Organization for Migration, by Adela Pellegrino, University of the Republic of Uruguay, May 2004. Print
Morehouse. Ch., Blomfield M., Irregular Migration in Europe, Transatlantic Council on Migration, Project on the Migration Policy Institute, December 2011. Print
Somerville W., Sumption M. Immigration and the Labor Market: theory evidence and policy, Migration Policy Institute March 2009. Print
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, United Nations Population Fund, Statistics on International Migration,A Practical Guide for Countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 2011.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, International Migration Report 2013. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/migration/migration-report-2013.shtml
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division International migrant stock by destination and origin. http://esa.un.org/unmigration/TIMSO2013/migrantstocks2013.htm?msdo
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division , World Population Policies 2013. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/policy/world-population-policies-2013.shtml
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, Policy Section, World Population Policies Database. http://esa.un.org/PopPolicy/about_database.aspx.
Appendix
Graph 1.
Contribution of natural increase and net migration to total population change
Graph 2.
Graph 3
Graph 4
Graph 5
EU Countries accepting the major part of immigrants
Graph 6
Graph 7.
Income inequality
Graph 8
