Abstract
Erik Erikson developed a psychosocial theory to explain stages of development experienced throughout an individual’s life, from birth and infancy to old age and death. He is most closely compared to Freud, whose psychoanalytic theory predated and somewhat overlapped Erikson’s. Where they were divided, though, was with regards to motivation; Freud believed sexuality was the underlying reason for action whereas Erikson believed social interaction mostly motivated people. Erikson outlined eight total stages to describe dichotomous “life crises” that define important dilemmas at any particular stage of life. The eight stages encompass the acquisition or loss of qualities such as hope, will, confidence, purpose, love, and more. How one copes with those defining struggles determines how they may perform at later stages and ultimately shapes their identity. Whether they fall under the positive or negative outcome will influence their work, actions, relationships, and sense of self.
Keywords: Erikson, development, psychoanalysis, psychosocial, theory
Erik Erikson had not originally set out to construct a working theory for psychological development; he was originally an aspiring artist and world traveler, as stated by the Erikson Institute. However, he found a calling in the realm of psychological theories when he enrolled in the Psychoanalytic Institute in Vienna. Erikson’s psychosocial theory is normally grouped with Freud’s under the blanket term “psychoanalytic theories” because they both provide explanations for development and personality based on a subconscious (Santrock, 2012). However, they are divided on what acts as motivation for individuals at each stage. Whereas Freud believed that sex was an underlying motivator, Erikson believed that social connection moved people to act out certain patterns of behavior throughout life (“Erik H. Erikson”).
At every stage of life, one must confront a struggle which leaves one vulnerable to failure but also open to growth (Santrock, 2012). Barbara Engler (2008) expands on the “emotional polarity or conflict” faced at each stage of life; positive and negative factors presented through new environments and challenges may influence a child in various ways, depending on how he or she copes with them and how a parent supports or limits the child. Thus, according to Erikson’s theory, there are mainly two dichotomous outcomes, and because a person can only become one or the other according to Erikson, he referred to these stages as “life crises” (Engler, 2008).
Stages of Development
Infancy and Childhood
The very first stage Erikson proposed occurs at infancy, labeled trust versus mistrust. It is worth mentioning that each of the eight stages are defined by how each potential quality is manifested and how the individual will be impacted should they become trustful or mistrustful, autonomous or shameful, etc. To gain the trust of an infant during the first stage, Erik suggests that the adult or caretaker must answer to its needs, or in other words be available for comfort, warmth and food (Cramer, 1997). Should the guardian betray the infant somehow through instances of neglect or abuse, the infant may learn to mistrust the individual (Sharkey, 1997). More specifically, the child learns to distinguish trustworthy people from those who are not, and thus learns to whom to cling. Erikson himself explains in his book, Childhood and Society (1987), “such consistency, continuity, and sameness of experience provide a rudimentary sense of ego identity” (p. 222).
Between the first and third years, a toddler will go through Erikson’s second stage, autonomy versus shame and doubt, during which they realize that they are their own being with desires and wants—in short, they develop a sense of self (Santrock, 2012 ). Santrock (2012) goes on to explain that if the infant cannot trust others or themselves, they will be unsure of their actions and grow shameful and fearful, thus leaning toward shame and doubt. Sharkey (1997) also warns that controlling parents undermine a toddler’s will to be autonomous, thus creating a sense of shame. On the other hand, parents can encourage a child, allowing it to make choices and gain control over some aspects of life (Santrock, 2012; Sharkey, 1997). The Child Development Institute reminds parents that the newfound will of a toddler may not appear to be prideful or in total control, but may take the form of tantrums and the ever-present response, “No!” (“Stages of Development”)
Initiative versus guilt is Erikson’s third stage, during which a child begins to play in a more structured way, especially with regards to figuring out his or her individual role (Erikson, 1987). They recognize themselves as being different from other people (Santrock, 2012). If this urge to assert oneself and accept responsibility is thwarted by parents, the child may begin to believe that such initiative is wrong and may become guilty (Sharkey, 1997). Instead, to encourage such initiative parents should accept the ways in which the child strives to manifest independence; they should allow children to make choices and refrain from causing him or her to feel guilty through chastisement or correction (Cramer, 1997).
Late Childhood and Adolescence
Around age six is when a child begins school, and likewise enters the fourth stage, industry versus inferiority. Sharkey (1997) explains industry as a “feeling of competence and mastery” established by accomplishing meaningful work at school and at home. Children may be seen gathering with peers, following rules established by authority figures, engaging in more structured play centered around teamwork, and building on their knowledge of subjects like math, science, and reading (“Stages of Development). More important than play though, is the need to be productive through “steady attention and persevering diligence” (Erikson, 1987, p. 233). Erikson mentions that both arenas—home and school—can fail to instill a sense of industry by not providing the right tools, preparation, or sustenance for the child to succeed along with his or her peers. Thus, they cannot escape what they feel is their destiny of mediocrity (Erikson, 1987).
Children enter a chaotic period of puberty and adolescence during school years, which is when the fifth stage, identity versus identity confusion, enters as a climax to the search for self (Sharkey, 1997). Adolescents experiment with various roles, ideals, and leaders to find which one suits them best and awards them self-certainty (“Stages of Development”). Engler (2008) outlines several different outcomes for an adolescent at this stage: ideally, they find an identity and enter society as a productive member, or they fail to adopt an identity with regards to an occupation or otherwise, and go through an “identity crisis”. Lastly, they may take on a “negative identity” that contrasts with what they were brought up to believe or desire (Engler, 2008).
Adulthood
In early adulthood, the desire to form relationships dominates, leading to the life crisis labeled intimacy versus isolation. Intimacy is achieved when friendships are formed and maintained, which is only possible, Erikson argues, after one’s identity is established during adolescence. Only then can a person commit to another person and be intimate with them, engaging in a relationship while keeping a sense of self, “even though [such commitments] may call for significant compromises and sacrifices” (Erikson, 1987, p. 237). Reversely, the failure to do so results in isolation. As Santrock (2012) explains, if one cannot build relationships with others, they may lose the ability to relate to others in a mature way. However, if one develops intimacy, they are able to do so because they no longer fear a loss of identity; they commit to a relationship and find love fostered by the tenderness and unconditional love learned in childhood (Engler, 2008).
In middle adulthood, between forty and sixty years old, one faces the life crisis of generativity versus stagnation. Santrock (2012) defines generativity as the desire for adults to leave “legacies” for progenyThese legacies encompass what they did in their personal lives and how they improved society through their actions, including raising children, working, and practicing and preserving culture (Santrock, 2012). Even if one does not have children, they still contribute to society through their occupations and productive hobbies (Engler, 2008). Engler continues to explain that the main idea of this stage is to establish the fact that the adult is needed and cherished in the world. If this is not realized, an adult may begin to believe they have reached a point of stagnation (Santrock, 2012). After deciding that one has not contributed well enough or has failed to raise successful and independent children, they may recede into themselves and indulge in self-care (Erikson, 1987).
The final stage, integrity versus despair, is one during which an older adult evaluates their lives and decides whether they lived fully, productively, and positively or failed to develop properly and pass on a legacy (Sharkey, 1987). Erikson (1987) explained the importance of this stage as lying in the human desire for “world order and meaning” or “spiritual sense” (p. 241). Erikson also mentions a newfound and renewed understanding and feeling of love for one’s parents and of things of the past. Most importantly, as one approaches death and all of its mysterious finality, mortality “loses its sting” (Erikson, 1987, p. 242). Thus concludes Erikson’s eight stages of development.
Though Erikson had not originally set out in his career to establish a psychoanalytic hypothesis for growth and development, he accomplished setting up a theory for behavioral psychologists to expand on. His theory is comprehensive, spanning an individual’s entire life should they reach old age, and builds on the psychoanalytical theories that came before him, namely that of Freud. Erikson recognized the inner world of the subconscious and argued that it largely centered on social interactions that one comes upon throughout infancy, childhood, and late adulthood, with each stage presenting its own unique yet common challenges that many individuals in a particular culture must face.
References
Cramer, C., Flynn, B., LaFave, A. (1997). Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development. SUNY Cortland. Retrieved from http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/ERIK/stage3.HTML
Engler, B. (2008). Personality Theories (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Erik H. Erikson: Erikson Institute’s namesake. Erikson Institute. Retrieved from http://www.erikson.edu/about/history/erik-erikson/
Erikson, E. H. (1987). Childhood and society. London, GB: Paladin Grafton Books. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/134563219/Erik-H-Erikson-Childhood-and-Society-BookFi-org#scribd
Santrock, J. W. (2012). Essentials of lifespan development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Sharkey, W. (May 1997). Erik Erikson. Muskingum College. Retrieved from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history.htm
Stages of social-emotional development: Erik Erikson. Child Development Institute. Retrieved from http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-development/erickson/
