Abstract
Currently, it has been assumed that with the declining prevalence of racism and seemingly reduced rate of bullying in the neighborhood, schools in the United States of America are no longer affected by the negative vices of bullying, whether based on the race, gender or otherwise. In this regard, it is further assumed that the counselors within the schools have the ability to eliminate bullying within the schools. However, there is a very great difference between the reality and the assumptions taken so far. In addition, there are several reports on studies that have been developed with an aim of determining various aspects of bullying in various parts of the world. Most of these studies have successfully reported on the existence of various forms of the vice within schools and the neighborhood. However, very few, if any, studies have focused on the role of counselors in the schools (Trolley, & Hanel, 2010). This study therefore aims to address these issues. This study will focus on evaluating the work of the counselors in two schools selected in the New York County, where the students are of mixed races, this prone to race-oriented bullying. The study will use questionnaires to access the role of counselors in the schools in relation to the effects on the students. It is therefore a quantitative and qualitative form of study.
School Counselors Role in Bully Prevention Programs
Introduction
Although not all school counseling programs are utilized appropriately and the relationship the school counselor has with his/her students will affect the success rate, anti-bullying programs that have highly involved school counselors are more successful. Studies show that school counselors have a positive effect on students. When students have someone they can trust and confide in that is able to lead and guide them in the correct direction they are more likely to be receptive to what is required of them. "Teachers' attitudes and beliefs directly and indirectly impact upon children's developmental outcomes. To begin with, teachers’ beliefs influence the decisions they make in the classroom." (Arbeau & Coplan, 2007, pp. 291-292) "Children suffering anxiety due to bullying cannot learn, and therefore anti-bullying work makes an important contribution towards the school's overall aims." (Root, n.d., p. 7) "The key to cutting bullying is to create a real partnership between staff and students, showing that the school is determined to combat bullying in a way which empowers students, and protects complainants from reprisals." (Root, n.d., p. 7) Many schools rely on the teachers to implement the anti-bullying program however, "evidence from a number of studies suggests that teachers are generally not very effective when they address cases of bullying. For example, in one US study among the 58% of children who had been bullied several times a week and actually told a teacher about it, only 28% reported that the teacher was successful in stopping the bullying; 20% said the teacher tried to stop it to no effect, 10% said that the teacher tried to stop the bullying but it became worse, and 8% responded that the teacher did not try to stop the bullying. Similar evidence of teacher ineffectiveness in stopping bullying has been reported in England and Australia." (Bauman et al., 2008, pp. 837-838) If these statistics are not surprising enough, in one study almost 50% of teacher’s admitted to having bullied a student. Research has clearly shown that exposure to bullying can lead to aggressive behavior as well as inhibit intellectual development, learning, self-esteem and interpersonal skills. How can we expect our children to do their best academically and socially if our teachers are contributing to the problem? (James et al., 2008, p. 162) An anti-bullying program cannot be effective when teachers are a part of the problem, many teachers either bully students or are bullied by students, if they do not know how to effectively handle these situations and respond appropriately, how can we expect our students to. When the school counselor is involved in the anti-bullying program, he/she can effectively train teachers how to prevent being a bully and how to appropriately handle bullies. This ensures teachers model appropriate behaviors themselves, leading to a more successful program. (James et al., 2008, p. 160)
Literature Review
"Bullying can be a serious problem for children of all ages. Although bullying has been researched since the late 1960's, it was not until the early 1980's that research into bullying was conducted on a large scale. In 1983, the Ministry of Education in Norway collected data relating to the problem of bullying from 700 Norwegian schools. Since that time, research has been conducted in countries including Britain, Ireland, Australia, Japan, Sweden, and the United States." (Carey, 2003, p. 16) "The overall aim of anti-bullying interventions in school is to achieve long-lasting reductions in bullying. The dynamics of bullying, involving offenders, victims, and bystanders, call for interventions aimed at prevention and procedures for dealing with bullying when it occurs." (Midthassel et al., 2008, p. 83) According to DeLara numerous forms of bullying exist in our schools ranging from psychological intimidation (e.g., group exclusion, starting rumors, sexual gestures) to verbal abuse to physical abuse (hitting, kicking, inappropriate touching, sexual abuse) to life-threatening violence (threatening with a weapon, attempted homicide). (DeLara, 2008, p. 73) Advances in technology have added a new form of bullying called ‘cyber bullying’ which is done through instant messaging (IM), text messaging, cell phone pictures, personal web sites, my space, and web logs (blogs). (DeLara, 2008, p. 74) DeLara reports that young people receive unwanted sexual pictures or similar material from peers as well as aggressive types of online contact. Both boys and girls report high rates of being sexually harassed at school- 83% of girls and 79% of boys. (DeLara, 2008, p. 74) "It's reported that 30% of U.S. students in the 6th through 10th grades were involved in moderate or frequent bullying activities, as perpetrator, victim, or both. Every day, 160,000 children skip school due to fear for their safety." (DeLara, 2008, p. 73) In an attempt to gain control over bullying, many schools have implemented zero tolerance policies to handle bullying; however, when used alone there is not much support that it increases school safety. (Packman et al., n.d., p. 548) A report by the Gulbenkian Foundation in 1995 stated: "Schools can either be a force for violence prevention, or can provide an experience which reinforces violent attitudes or ads to the child's experience of violence." (Dawson & McHugh, 2006, p. 268) We need highly involved school counselors to head anti-bullying programs to ensure our schools are a force for violence prevention. "Action against bullying can have lifelong effects. Research shows that child victims often become adult victims, and that workplace bullying is common". (Root, n.d., p. 7)
"The U.S. Department of Education (1998) found approximately 25% of 4th-6th grade students reporting being bullied in the prior three months. They also reported rural schools having roughly 77% of 7th-12th grade students reported having been the victim of school bullying." On top of that "The results of a survey by the national Institute of Child Health and Human Development identified over 3 million victims and over 3.5 million bullies between grades 6-10 nationwide. Additional research indicates that bullying is a global problem, citing studies in numerous other countries that find bullying a problematic and widespread phenomenon." (Packman et al., n.d., p. 547) "The consequences of this behavior are the true cause for alarm. Victims of bullying were more likely to report somatic complaints such as headaches and stomach aches. A survey of Australian secondary school students found a significant association between those who are victimized and higher likelihood of poorer health, including things like feeling ill and losing sleep." (Packman et al., n.d., p. 548) "A study of the effects of bullying on psychiatric symptoms found victims and perpetrators to both suffer mental health consequences years after the bullying occurred. Other common effects of bullying on victims include chronic anxiety and depressive reactions, increased school absenteeism, lowered self-esteem, feelings of loneliness and increased risks of suicide." (Packman et al., n.d., p. 548)
Schools spend their time and efforts focusing on increasing test scores instead of focusing on pressing issues such as bullying and personal growth that are part of the reason test scores are not as high as they could be. (Hurley et al., 2003/2004, p. 7) "The aggressive attitudes and behavior of students who bully often translate into high rates of rule-breaking behavior and disciplinary infractions. Bullying is also associated with other indicators of poor school functioning, including lower grade point average (GPA)." (Branson & Cornell, 2009, p. 8) Teachers and administrators have been stripped of their power over students and as a result the students have taken control. (Hurley et al., 2003/2004, p. 10) The problem with this is that if the adults don't have the power to enforce rules to ensure our students safety and educational environment, how can we hold them accountable for that material they learn and their behavior? We need to take that control back. We need to implement anti-bullying programs and we need to ensure our students have a safe learning environment if we expect them to focus and do well on these standardized exams. It is essential to have involved school counselors as many students feel that school faculty do not care nor intervene enough in bullying incidents. (Packman et al., n.d., p.551) "Rigby and Barnes concluded that interventions by teachers could make matters worse unless handled in a competent and sensitive way. If students are encouraged to tell about bullying, then teachers need to be seen as people who are interested in finding out about bullying and who deal with it sensitively and competently. Studies have shown that teachers do not have a good understanding of bullying and how to manage it." (James et al., 2006, p. 40) "One study found that 66% of those who did tell, felt that school personnel responded poorly and found that those who did tell, only a quarter thought that things had improved." (James et al., 2006, p. 40) The school counselor’s involvement here is essential to educate the faculty how to properly handle bullying incidents and to develop student trust in adult involvement. (Packman et al., n.d., p. 551) “It is possible that their professional training leads them to view bullying differently from teachers and to respond to cases of bullying in different ways. It was found that school counselors displayed more empathy for victims of physical and relational bullying than teachers. They also perceived relational bullying to be more serious than teachers did, and were more likely to intervene in relational bullying. Finally, counselors proposed more involved interventions for bullies in relational bullying. These findings suggest that school counselors may be more perceptive and more sensitive to issues of bullying than teachers." (Bauman et al., 2008, p. 838) During their research, Bauman et al. found a significant difference in how counselors and teachers responded to bullying. School counselors' scores were significantly different from those of teachers on all scales except ‘Working with the bully’ scale. “This may reflect differences in training and the different roles they have in a school. School counselors are extensively trained in listening and expressing empathy, and focus on the personal/social domain in addition to assisting with academic areas. They also have training and interest in providing both individual and group counseling to victimized students, which is reflected in their higher scores on the Work with the victim scale.” (Bauman et al., 2008, p. 849)
Studies show that students’ attitudes towards bullying determine the extent to which they bully their peers. This further supports the need to have a school counselor working with students regarding bullying at the elementary level and up. (Andreou et al., 2008, p. 236) "Social support is an important contextual factor to consider in the bullying cycle. However, the use of social support in anti-bullying programs and interventions is often not explicit or is lacking. Although research investigating both social support and bullying behaviors is relatively sparse, researchers are beginning to understand more about the perceptions of social support for bullies, victims, and bully-victims, and how social support may help students cope with bullying or decrease negative outcomes typically associated with bullying (Trolley, & Hanel, 2010). For example, researchers have found that social support is a salient contextual factor in bullying behavior." (Demaray & Malecki, 2006, pp. 51-52) Studies show that both victims and bullies have lower levels of adult and peer support then those not in the bully cycle. Ensuring that students have a strong level of social support is imperative in the implementation of an anti-bullying program. (Demaray & Malecki, 2006, p. 55) The school counselor is one of the best support systems a student can have in the school. He/she is also capable of instructing other students and staff how to be good support systems, and is able to connect students with various support systems in and out of the school setting. School counselors are essential in anti-bullying programs partly because they are able to provide the education and counseling to all parties involved (ASCA, 2009). One aspect that many programs fail to implement is training students how to react when they witness a bullying situation. Bystanders have a powerful effect on bullying behavior; their reaction can either enhance or inhibit the situation. (Swearer et al., 2010, pp. 39-40)
"By involving students in the solution of the issue of bullying from a young age, they can learn social skills necessary to address similarly complex social issues as future adult citizens. Giving students the opportunity to address this issue can spark student creativity and energy and the skills to deal with similar problems like sexual harassment and racism as adults." (Packman et al., n.d., p. 551) This is one reason why having highly involved school counselors is so important because unlike teachers they are trained in providing guidance and direction as opposed to solving the problem or telling what should be done. (Packman et al., n.d., p. 551) "Special care must be given anytime students are asked to put themselves on the line to help address a school problem. As pointed out by Cowie (1999), "attempts to mobilize the strength of young people to resolve their own difficulties through peer led interventions can meet with unexpected hostility or sabotage from adults and even other members of the peer group." If faculty support for student efforts is lacking, well-intentioned students may feel vulnerable when they try to intervene and help. Adults facilitating student led anti bullying efforts must be aware of the risks students face in addressing bullying." (Packman et al., n.d., p. 552) In order to have a successful anti-bullying program, teachers and other staff need to be educated and trained how to prevent and counteract bullying behavior, specific rules on how to handle offences need to be implemented as well as routines that prevent and deal with bullying. A successful anti-bullying program will be implemented in the entire district and not focused on just one cohort. (Midthassel et al., 2008, p. 90) School counselors are also vital in managing peer support programs to ensure proper training and supervision. (Hurst, 2001, p. 10)
"Adolescents use a psychosocial strategy called peer predictability to avoid bullying or aggressive peers. This tactic consists of attempting to gauge the possibility of aggressive behavior of particular classmates based on mood, current behavior, and past behavior." (DeLara, 2008, p. 75) "Coping strategies at school include cognitive problem-solving skills (seeking social support and telling an adult) and emotion-focused skills (ignoring, being nonchalant, or crying). Forms of coping vary by age, gender, and type of mistreatment at school." (DeLara, 2008, p. 75) Students have found the use of cognitive coping mechanisms and strategies useful in managing the impact of being bullied. This further strengthens the argument of ensuring school counselor involvement because they are the ones who will be able to teach the students how to use these strategies. (DeLara, 2008, p. 72) Delara noted that students were willing and relieved to discuss issues concerning bullying and harassment at school during his research. This again further strengthens the need to ensure school counselors are highly involved in anti-bullying programs. (DeLara, 2008, p. 79)
"Several authors have paid attention to the critical role played by peers in bullying-victim interactions, and increasing attention has been paid to the idea of targeting the anti-bullying interventions not only towards the bullies and their victims, but also towards the group as a whole. Trying to make the bully behave differently rarely leads to a permanent change. Thus, the idea is to affect the behavior of the bystanders; students who witness the bullying but do nothing to stop it. It has been shown that although anti-bullying attitudes are common, few students actually express such attitudes or try to intervene in bullying (Olweus, Limber, & Mihalic, 2009). On the contrary, many students act in ways that encourage or maintain the bullying, taking on the participant roles of assistants or reinforces of the bully. Other students, so-called outsiders, withdraw and pretend not to notice what is going on. Fortunately, there are also defenders who give support to the victims." (Salmivalli et al., 2005, p. 467) Root found it beneficial to enroll peer counselors to work with younger age groups, stating it strengthens the relationships across age divisions and helps to pass on norms of commitment to the school as a whole community. (Root, n.d., p. 7)
Delara points out to us that children and adults differ on their definitions of bullying; children's tend to be broader and do not necessarily encompass the idea of a power differential. Students' definitions and perceptions of violence at school are contextual, influenced by gender, age, grade level, ethnicity, geographic region, peer group associations, family factors, level of moral development, and individual attribution of cues in the environment. For anti-bullying programs to succeed, it is critical to understand what students experience as bullying and harassment and the means they use to combat it. (DeLara, 2008, pp. 74-75) Dawson and McHugh recommend three levels of prevention when implementing an anti-bullying program.
1. Prevention: tackling school discipline and climate to create a safe environment for learning.
2. Early intervention: using cognitive/behavioral techniques, including anger management, social skills training and mediation between peers.
3. Therapy: specific intervention in persistent cases with the child or with the family. (Dawson & McHugh, 2006, p. 269)
"Management of bullying is easier at the primary level. Teachers are usually responsible for one class and can concentrate their efforts. Implementation of programs is more difficult at the secondary level, as there are more complex timetables, more complicated organizational structures, such as more students, student groups varying by subject and more teachers." (James et al., 2006, p. 40) Many teachers find it difficult to commit to long-term anti-bullying strategies. (Midthassel et al., 2008, p. 84) However, in order for an anti-bullying program to remain successful, schools must continue to focus on anti-bullying intervention and prevention with the students. (Midthassel et al., 2008, p. 84) All the more reason highly involved school counselors are essential.
"Olweus was perhaps the first researcher to implement a large-scale anti-bullying program. The program devised by Olweus incorporated procedures at the school, class, and individual level (Olweus, 2009). Procedures at the school level included general education sessions to inform people about the problem of bullying as well as increasing supervision times and improving communication between parents and teachers. At the class level, rules about bullying were introduced and class meetings were conducted to discuss the problem of bullying. Also, praise rates for rule-following behavior were increased and sanctions were introduced for transgression of rules (Olweus, 2003). At the individual level, a student who was identified as engaging in bullying behavior would become involved in individual "talks" with school personnel and would also participate in anti-bullying discussion groups with a trained therapist or group leader (Loudoun County Public Schools, 2010).
This broad ranging intervention program was implemented across 28 elementary schools and 14 junior high schools involving 2,500 students. Overall, there were reductions of 50% or more in bully/victim problems. These reductions were maintained for the two year period that data were collected." (Carey, 2003, p. 18)
"In general, initiatives designed for primary schools show more positive results than those aimed at adolescents. Cognitive development may have an impact. Younger children are more amenable to obeying directives from adults, and many stop bullying behaviors when asked to do so. They are more likely to 'tell' an adult if another child hits them takes their belongings or excludes them from games. Teenagers are less likely to seek adult help." (James et al., 2006, p. 39)
Statement of the problem
Currently, it has been assumed that with the declining prevalence of racism and seemingly reduced rate of bullying in the neighborhood, schools in the United States of America are no longer affected by the negative vices of bullying, whether based on the race, gender or otherwise (Loudoun County Public Schools, 2010). In this regard, it is further assumed that the counselors within the schools have the ability to eliminate bullying within the schools. However, there is a very great difference between the reality and the assumptions taken so far. For instance, there are cases of bullying in schools, given that in the current school administrations, the work of the counselors have not been defined, while other schools have little concern on the need to have counselors (Ross, Horner, Stiller, 2009). In addition, the school counselors my sometimes be involved in bullying in one way or the other. This study will therefore focus on the need to find the roles of the counselors in reducing bullying as well as other vices in the schools, and the student’s attitudes towards the counselors as far as their roles are concerned (Ross, Horner, Stiller, 2009).
Significance of the study
Currently, there are several reports on studies that have been developed with an aim of determining various aspects of bullying in various parts of the world. Most of these studies have successfully reported on the existence of various forms of the vice within schools and the neighborhood (Educational Research Service, 2010). However, very few, if any, studies have focused on the role of counselors in the schools. In addition, those which have focused on these issues have not been well developed, and very few have provided with satisfactory results on the issue. In addition, they have not focused on the specific schools in the New York County rather they have provided with generalized results on the entire district and the nation at large. This has been confusing, and it is therefore the role of this study to provide clarity on the issue. The results of this study will be useful in planning education systems, especially in the process of developing counseling programs in schools within the county, and in the nation in general. The studies are expected to be used by both the individual schools and the school districts throughout the country.
Study questions
The study will focus on finding the answers to these following questions. These questions of the study will act as the guidelines for the study, and will determine the scope of the study. This will prevent the researcher from following unnecessary details of bullying in schools, but instead focus on the specific details to which the study has been tailored.
1. Is bullying a reality in the schools?
2. Does race difference appear in the form of racism present in schools?
3. Does bullying in schools affect the way students develop and learn within their schools?
4. Does the counselors’ work reduce the degree of bullying in the schools?
5. Do the students find the counselors’ work important in reducing the cases of bullying in the schools?
Study hypothesis
Bullying is common in schools, it is based on various aspects of which racism is true, and has a significant negative effect on the students process of learning and which can be successfully be reduced by students’ counselors, however, there are mixed feeling among the students on the need to have counselors in schools.
Materials and methods
Study population
The two schools selected in this case have a total population of at least two thousand students. This is the total population that he researchers have selected for the study. Out of these, the researcher hopes to obtain the consent of at least 1500 students, who will further fill in the questionnaires for the study. The researchers expects that out of these, at least 90 percent of the students will return questionnaires that are valid for the research, and thus the total sample size will be over 70 percent of the total population.
Study area
Two schools will be surveyed for this comparative study. The first school is a pre-k through 8th grade school located in the suburbs of Westchester County, NY that currently has a school counselor run anti-bullying program with peer counselors and involvement for three years now. The second school is a private pre-k through 11th grade school located in Dutchess County, NY that currently relies on their teachers to handle bully issues. There is no anti-bullying program in place at this school. Both schools are co-ed, have approximately the same number of students and have a diverse population in regards to socio-economic status and ethnicity.
Study subjects
The subjects in this study are the students in the schools selected. They will be requested to sign in the consent forms after being guided and informed on the intentions of the researchers, and the intended use of the results. The students in this study will then be asked to fill-in the questionnaires provided to them. The students will fill in the forms within their own classes, a process which is expected to take at least one day and utmost two days in each school. Both students and staff will be requested to complete a confidential questionnaire. Pre-k and kindergarten students will not be asked to participate. The exact number at this time is unknown but my aim is to get at least 75% of both schools to complete the questionnaire.
Study design
This study will be both a qualitative and quantitative study. It will focus on the issues that have affected the counselors in schools selected as far as bullying is concerned. The study will not be an investigative process, but will be purely a study aimed at determining the best possible ways to provide counseling services to the students in order to ensure that bullying in future is prevented in schools. The researchers have embarked on using questionnaires administered to the students who are able to fill in the questionnaires. This means that the researchers will develop easy to understand questions within the questionnaires, which the students will find simple to fill-in.
Procedure
I would ideally like to spend a day or two at each school administering the questionnaire to students and staff, however, if that is not possible I will request that the current school counselor and or teachers do so. Once all questionnaires have been completed and collected they will be reviewed. Students and/or staff with relevant responses will then be interviewed and asked to respond to a series of predetermined questions relevant to the study.
Data collection and recording
Once filled, questionnaires will be collected from the students in their respective classes. They will be reviewed to determine their validity for the study. The researcher will record the data in computer system, where the Microsoft spreadsheets and databases will be used for this purpose. This will enhance the consecutive processes of data analysis and information derivation.
Data analysis procedure
Once the data has been recorded, it will undergo the process of analysis in order to derive information from it. The researchers have decided to use the data analysis techniques available, and this will specifically be computer based techniques. In particular, these methods will include The Statistical Package for Social Sciences, SPSS, Microsoft excel and access software. The researcher will develop t-tests, graphical analysis, correlation tables and correlation charts. Data presentation will be done using pie charts, correlation tables, tables, graphs and statements.
Anticipated results (make up)
It is expected that the results will be as follows: out of the 1500 students who consented for the study and filled the questionnaires, 1498 returned questionnaires which were filled in accordingly, however, four of them were messed up, and could not be used for the study. While they could not be traced from whom they came from, they were rejected as missed data. However, they were not accounted for in the study, and thus the total sample population was set at 1494, which are about 74. 9% of the total population in the schools. Out of the 1494 students interviewed in this study, 1312 said that had been exposed to some type of physical bullying, while an additional 36 said they had been bullied through the networking within the schools. In addition, 1368 students said that they had witnessed bullying in the school, and 64% of them said that the bullying was either frequent or very frequent. Only 112 students said that they had witnessed some bullying, but which was very rare. While there were no students who said that there was absolutely no bullying in their schools, the rest did not respond to this question. Out of the 1312 students who had been bullied, 1310 said they had either felt humiliated or very humiliated, while only two of them said that they did not feel anything. In addition, out of the 1312 of the affected students, 1306 said that they had been bullied more than twice, and had affected their results in the session, and in a very negative manner. Their performances had reduced, and it is clear that about 96% of the bullied students said that they had achieved below their expectation due to frequent bullying in one way or the other.
Out of the 1498 students who responded to the questionnaires, 1492 said that they were very much aware of the school counselor’s roles within the school program, but only 1432 of them said that they had been involved in the counseling process which included counseling on the need to avoid bullying in the school. However, all of them reported that the process was ranging from less frequent to very rare. Ethnicity/ racism was found to be a major factor in school-based bullying, where 1456 students said that the cases of bullying they had witnessed was based on race. However, only 204 students said that gender violence was prevalent in their school. Of the 1456 students who reported that racism was a factor in bullying, 802 of them were from the African-American or directly African origin, 204 were Hispanics, 154 were Asians or Orientals, 64 were native Americans (with red Indian descent) while the others were of the white European descent.
Out of the 1494 students who responded to the questionnaires, 1398 said that they were not satisfied with the counselors’ work in these schools; they rated their counselors with between poor and a total failure. In addition, 91 students rated the counselors as between good and fair, and only 2 of them said that they were excellent. Lastly, only 22 students said that they would like the process to continue as it was, while 1409 suggested that they programs be redefined through employing more counselors, enhancing the entire system or making it more frequent. However, some 61 students suggested that the entire system be scratched from the schools.
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