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Abstract
Social psychology is an interesting literature to study due to the fact that while studying the different dynamics of social psychology, one can be able to identify with different aspects of social psychology and the resultant actions including choices that are made. In this research paper, the learner will take a keen look at different aspects of social psychology. The research paper is more of an overview of a holistic study of what really social psychology is all about. The reason for this comment is due to the fact that, as it shall be seen below, there is consideration of every aspect from self to others to relationships and finally to group. In addition to this research, there will be reflection on social psychology and the future that is foreseeable in addition to thoughts on possible ground breaking new research work that might happen in the future.
Social Psychology
Discovering the Self
Self-discovery is an important aspect in that one can evaluate where they are and make necessary changes in their life. According to Feenstra (2011), the term self-concept is claimed to be a collection of all the things that an individual knows about one-self (p. 50). In other words, self-concept is a summation of all the things that one thinks about self and thinks that others think about them (Feenstra, 2011, p. 46). This includes the degree to which an individual becomes aware of themselves, or a particular aspect that define an individual or living in an individual (Feenstra, 2011, p. 46) also known as self-awareness.
Wiekens and Stapel (2010) add to this notion noting that there are two types of self-awareness which are the public and the private self-awareness with the disparity being that private self-awareness is being aware of one’s feelings, desires and thoughts. Additionally, public self-awareness is one’s awareness of their outward appearance and becomes higher if they perceive that they are being observed (Wiekens & Stapel, 2010).
According to Feenstra (2011), the term self-schema is described as the description that an individual gives to oneself or about oneself (p. 42). The description given shows how that person categorizes themselves in different packages. A good example is given in the work of Feenstra, (2011, p. 42) where an individual term themselves as exercisers, an aspect that is attributed from the action that they take.
The terms acting self are defined as actions taken by self due to the roles and an individual play within a certain setting (Feenstra, 2011, p. 48). As a result of acting-self one can be able to portray an image of what they intend others to see them as to be (Feenstra, 2011, p. 48). For example, when going for an interview, one is more likely to dress very professionally so as to impress the interviewers from a good impression. It is not surprising that some people have followed certain goals and academic courses in an effort to try to prove a certain point.
The terms self-esteem have been defines as a list that is made about oneself that an individual has concerning themselves (Feenstra, 2011, p. 45) and can either be about things one likes in themselves or dislikes (Baumeister et al., 2003). On the other hand, self-efficacy is an inherent focus on abilities like ability to complete tasks assigned or working in teamwork (Feenstra, 2011, p. 46). Self-efficacy is a personal evaluation of one’s abilities and beliefs on ability to accomplish the requirements of a certain requirement (Feenstra, 2011, p. 46). People who possess high self-efficacy demonstrate persistence, less depressed and more productivity (Feenstra, 2011, p. 46).
Thinking about Others
On the other hand external attributions are blames that are directed towards other factors that are not directed towards the person who ought to be blamed. For example, you book an appointment with someone and the person shows up late due to either poor weather condition or traffic snarl-up; if you blame the lateness on possible prevailing conditions, then this becomes external attribution and if the blame is on the person, terming the person as inconsiderate or massacring time, then this becomes internal attribution (Feenstra, 2011, p. 62).
In any organization, it is expected that while some people are laid down during organizational downsizing some will retain their positions or even be elevated. During such transitions, an individual who is laid down can adopt a blame-game on self or place the blame on the current economic condition (Feenstra, 2011, p. 62), which is the explanatory style. One can either have a pessimistic explanatory style or an optimistic explanatory style as noted in Feenstra (2011, p. 64).
According to the theory of planned behavior, it is possible to predict the behavior that an individual is likely to have by looking at the attitude that the person has concerning various things (Feenstra, 2011, p. 78). It is additionally noted that our attitudes and behavior have cognitive dissonance in that given sufficient justification; it is possible to change an attitude although that is not always the case (Feenstra, 2011, p. 78).
Feenstra (2011) defines prejudice as the negative attitude that an individual develops towards another person with reference to the membership group that the person is associated with (p. 92). On the other hand, stereotypes are beliefs that are embedded in an individual as pertains characteristics demonstrated in a given group or members of such groups (Feenstra, 2011, p. 92). Additionally, discrimination is negative behavior and actions towards a certain group of people of individuals that is mainly based on feelings and beliefs concerning these groups or individuals (Feenstra, 2011, p. 92).
Persuasive techniques
There are seven identifiable persuasive techniques according to Feenstra (2011, p. 128). The first persuasive technique is what is termed as foot-in-the-mouth whereby a small initial request is made and once that is accepted, the target request is then made with a good example being boarding a fully loaded train (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128). When the passengers aboard allow another passenger an opportunity to just step on the train, then it will also be their obligation to create space such that this person fits in the train (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128).
The second persuasive technique is the so called low-ball under which the target request is the initial request although the full cost of acceptance is not revealed initially but revealed over time (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128).
The third persuasive technique is the legitimization-of-paltry-favor whereby small favors although not deemed desirable yet they are described as acceptable (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128). The fourth persuasive technique is the reciprocity whereby upon delivery of a gift, a request is then made (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128). The fifth persuasive technique is the door-in-the-face approach such that an initial request that is relatively large is made but denied and thus leading to request of the smaller request that does not get rejected (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128).
The sixth persuasive technique is the that’s-not-all approach whereby the large request is placed and just before the person concerned makes comments to either accept or refute the request, additional incentives are unfolded and thus the decision is influenced by the incentive too (Feenstra, 2011, p. 128). Lastly, in some instances retailers create an artificial shortage of commodities and place advertisements that claim that there are a limited number of the said commodities in supply or sales are available while stocks last.
A persuader demonstrates the following characteristics. To start with, persuaders must be trustworthy and credible (Feenstra, 2011, p. 107). For example, it has been noted that in the medical field, while placing adverts, they use medical practitioners like doctors and pharmacists who have credibility in their field (Feenstra, 2011, p. 107).
Secondly, it is also thought and argued that a persuader must be physically attractive as well as quite likeable to boost product and / or service image (Feenstra, 2011, p. 107).
The message that is persuasive must have the following characteristics. First, the message should have emotional appeal or one that attempts to elicit emotion (Feenstra, 2011, p. 108). Secondly, the message needs to be framed either in gain frame where there is emphasis on the gains of the product and/ or service, or loss framed where there is focus on what an individual would be losing upon opting to leave that item (Feenstra, 2011, p. 110).
Thirdly, it is anticipated that the persuasive message should either be one-sided such that there is focus on the advantages only, or two-sided where all the cards are laid on the table with advantages and disadvantages known (Feenstra, 2011, p. 110). Another characteristic of persuasive message is the option of utilization of narratives to pass the message that is intended to join the feelings, thoughts and attention of the audience in what is termed as transportation (Feenstra, 2011, p. 111). Lastly, some messages are expected to be synthesized over time before fruition and thus such messages have key words that are used that linger in an individual’s mind (Feenstra, 2011, p. 111) in what is called the sleeper effect.
Influencing Others
Aggression behavior is an intentional act that is intended to harm someone else who would otherwise like to avoid such harm (Feenstra, 2011, p. 159). The key issue in this context is the intent of the doer of the action to cause harm (Feenstra, 2011, p. 159). On the other hand, aggression cues are a combination of factors that may fuel aggression behaviors in an individual (Feenstra, 2011, p. 159). For example frustration can fuel aggression, the presence of weapons can fuel aggression, certain environmental factors, alcohol and the media showing violence to children can fuel aggressive behavior (Feenstra, 2011, p. 164).
There are two prosocial behaviors that are evident in human behavior. Take for example an individual is involved in an emergency demanding occurrence, if individuals chose to take care of that person despite their busy schedules while expecting nothing in return, they are said to demonstrate altruistic behavior (Feenstra, 2011, p. 164). On the other have, there are people who offer assistance to those in need with the aim of gaining from such a situation, then such a person demonstrated egoistic behavior because they have instrumental goals as their ultimate goals (Feenstra, 2011, p. 164).
During relationship building, several factors play important roles in this process. To start with people have e tendency of looking at people who are attractive, similarity in preferences, personality match as well as those that demonstrate equitable relationships (Feenstra, 2011, p. 191), (Berscheid, 2006) and (Berscheid, 2010).
It is also noted that there is also a tendency to like those that like that exclusively like us (Berscheid, 2006). The reason for relationship building is due to the inborn need for interaction and development of closer bonds (Berscheid, 2006).
The word love has a myriad of meanings as noted in Feenstra (2011) and Berscheid (2010). Out of the different kinds of love that have been identified, there are three fundamental categories under which the rest of love fall under. The first category is called companionate love that is characterized by comfort, trust, deep caring for another person as well as joy in shared experiences (Berscheid, 2006) and (Berscheid, 2010). The second category is compassionate love that is characterized by offering oneself and especially in care-giving and is mainly a long-term friendship (Berscheid, 2006) and (Berscheid, 2010). Finally passionate love is characterized by intense emotional arousal that is coupled with emotional attraction (Berscheid, 2006) and (Berscheid, 2010) although this kind of love tends to fade away with time.
Group Dynamics
There are three crucial group categories as noted in Feenstra (2011). The first group is the intimacy group that is mainly found in family and friends that mainly enjoy each other’s company or related to one another in some form (Feenstra, 2011).
The second category is the social categorization with an example being an African-American woman. This category is related to some social reference point. The final group is the task group that is task specific group that is formed with the sole purpose of fulfilling a specific task after which it may or may not be dismantled (Berscheid, 2006) and (Berscheid, 2010).
Ordinarily, it is argued that two heads are better than one while some critics add to this notion saying that two heads are not necessarily better than one, it depends with the type of heads in question Group thinking brings with it five consequences that are noted below. To start with group think tends to disregard true objectives (Feenstra, 2011, p. 216). Secondly, group think rarely consider other available alternatives in taking an action (Feenstra, 2011, p. 216). Thirdly, the risks involved in an action are not comprehensively reviewed before the action (Feenstra, 2011, p. 216). Group think rarely have proper contingency plans laid down before an action is taken (Feenstra, 2011, p. 216). Lastly, group think tends to conduct shallow information search before acting (Feenstra, 2011, p. 216).
There are several social dilemmas that are identified in the works of Feenstra (2011, p. 216). For example, overfishing tends to decrease the number of fishes and their dynamics and may even lead to extinction of some species while at the same time fishing provides a livelihood to those people who live on coastlines. Other dilemmas include pollution, forest depletion, pollution and energy over-utility. All these form dilemmas that need to be addressed.
Future of Psychology (Personal Reflection)
Based on the trend of psychology, there is a lot that is yet to be discovered and included in the research on psychology. It is anticipated that there will be more research that integrates the services of technology in better interpretation of human behavior. It is foreseeable in the future that there will be some ground breaking meta-analytical tools that will integrate include behavior, technology, environment and personal background that will be used in predicting the trend an individual is likely to take and proactively identifying potential misbehavior and integrating corrective measures to correct the situation before it is too late.
Reference
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1). 1-44.
Berscheid, E. (2010). Love in the fourth dimension. Annual Review of Psychology 61, 1-25. Doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100318
Berscheid, E. (2006). Searching for the meaning of “love”. Sternberg & Weis 2006, 171-183.
Feenstra, J. (2011). Introduction to social psychology. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
Wiekens, C. J. & Stapel, D. A. (2010). Self-awareness and saliency of social versus individualistic behavioral standards, Social Psychology, 41(1), 10-19. Doi: 10.1027/1864-9335/9000003
