Introduction
In some ways, we all develop in almost the same ways, yet in other ways, we all seem to develop rather uniquely. We all have a lifespan during which a pattern of changes occurs from birth until death. In the field of study known as lifespan development, these patterns of development that takes place during the whole lifespan of a human being are examined. Human development is what lifespan development emphasizes on. Most life development studies emphasize on comprehending how principles of development vary around the world, and how the process of development is influenced by cultural, ethnic, and racial factors. Moreover, these studies also emphasize on understanding the differences between individuals based on their characteristics, traits, and unique aspects. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the topic areas in lifespan development, namely physical, cognitive, and social development throughout the sages of the lifespan, using supporting research and theoretical evidence.
Early to Late Childhood
Physical Development
At the same time, other rapid aspects of growth also occur, such as the forming of bones, thickening of muscle fibers, and the emergence of teeth from the gums. The changes that take place in the brain and nervous system are the most impressive, even though they are immature. Psychological development is closely linked to the maturation of the brain. For instance, cognitive ability advances occur when the number of synaptic connections in the brain naturally increases. Children usually begin reading by the ages of 4 to 7 years because their brain is able to process information by these ages (Kalverboer & Gramsbergen, 2001). Along with physical changes, the coordination of motor skills is the second most predictable change that takes place in a human being during early to late childhood.
Cognitive Development
Unraveling the mystery of cognitive development in children can be challenging (Siegler, 2007). This aspect of lifespan development can be comprehended by turning to Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, children begin understanding the world by forming schemas. They assimilate information and try fitting it into their schemas. Finally, they alter their schemas to accommodate new information. According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs when children gather information by interacting with the external world and combine it with preexisting knowledge to create more knowledge (Siegler & Ellis, 1996). Moreover, there are four stages of cognitive development. From birth to two years is the sensomotor stage where infants learn through motor contact and their senses. Object permanence and separation anxiety also develop during this stage. From two to six years is the preoperational stage where intuitive and prelogical reasoning develops within children. From six to twelve years is the concrete operational stage where logical reasoning develops but abstract thought does not exist. Finally, from twelve years to adulthood is the formal operational stage where the ability to reason at an abstract develops. Although the rates of development may have been underestimated by Piaget, the sequence of cognitive development mentioned by him is correct. Similarly, as children continue growing older, their speed to process information, and their short-term memory also increases (Kail & Hall, 1994).
Social Development
Unlike some animals, humans do not imprint or instinctively follow their mothers after birth. Instead, humans form an attachment with their primary caretaker, usually the mother, which instigates their social development. Based on studies of humans, “contact comfort” is the primary factor that leads to the first attachment. Depending on the parenting style and the temperament of the child, attachment is either secure or insecure (LaMont, 2011). Apparently, securely attached children achieve independence and develop social skills better than those insecurely attached. As children grow up the importance of peer relationships, mostly with children of the same gender (Martin & Fabes, 2001), increases. Having many friends can be cognitively and socially beneficial for a child, while rejection by peers can lead to future adjustment issues (Asher & Coie, 1990).
Adolescence
Adolescence can be regarded as a second birth. In the United States, teenagers are considered adolescents. They are not children anymore but are also not adults yet. Adolescence is the second transitional stage in lifespan development, where various biological, cognitive, and social changes occur (Steinberg & Morris, 2001).
Physical Development (Puberty)
Adolescence is marked by the onset of puberty, the beginning of sexual maturation, resulting in rapid growth and a rise in the levels of sex hormones. In girls, the onset of puberty is marked by the first menstrual period, known as menarche. A girl’s reaction to menarche is influenced by her age and cultural practices. Reaching puberty early can cause girls to have adjustment problems, feel embarrassed and bad about their body image. In boys, the onset of puberty is marked by the first ejaculation, along with other physical changes, including the growth of sexual organs. For boys, reaching puberty early is a positive experience (Stein & Reiser, 1994).
Cognitive Development
During adolescence rapid cognitive growth also occurs. According to Piaget, this is when teenagers begin thinking abstractly and critically. In moral reasoning, they begin interpreting rules more flexibly than they did during childhood. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, there are three stages of moral reasoning that people advance through, namely preconventional, conventional, and postconventional (Boeree). However, some critics believe this theory is biased on the basis of culture and gender, the relation of moral reasoning to behavior has also been questioned. Moreover, according to Kohlberg, modesty and pro-social behavior are correlated to each other, and young adolescents do not need sophisticated reasoning to act morally. Adolescents are emphatic towards others and so they act morally. Often moral dilemmas are confronted in legal contexts as exemplified by the recent controversy surrounding euthanasia.
Social and Personal Development
According to Erik Erikson, every adolescent goes through an identity crisis, during which they struggle to establish their personal identity (Erikson, 1959). A rise in tension takes place within young adolescents causing them to bicker with parents and disengage themselves from family activities (Reed Larson et al., 1996). At the same time, the importance of peer relationships also starts to further increase (Berndt). Peer pressure in the early stages of early adolescence instigates conformity. Although adolescent development causes natural sexual maturation, at times it can lead to confusion and have detrimental consequences. In comparison to the previous two American generations, the American children of today are relatively more sexually active (Brener et al., 2002).
Adulthood (Early and Middle Adulthood)
Important changes occur in human beings as they mature into adulthood. Biologists agree that every species has a maximum lifespan, and that the average life expectancy of a species is less than its maximum lifespan. In human beings, the environment, health care, health practices, nutrition, personality, and other factors influence life expectancy. Additionally, women have a greater life expectancy than men.
Physical Development
Since birth, a steady decline in the number of brain cells occurs in every human being as they age. During the twenties, by the time people have transitioned into adulthood, their muscle strength, reflexes, and other physical attributes start increasing, reaching reach their peak during middle adulthood in the thirties, and continue declining as adulthood progresses. At the onset of adulthood, most people have a youthful physique, but many of them often begin gaining weight during the thirties because their metabolism begins slowing down. However, this also depends on their diet, exercise habits, and health as well, and so it is possible to maintain a slim physique even during middle adulthood. During early adulthood, a majority of men and women are most fertile because of the testosterone and estrogen levels are at the peak. That is why this stage of adulthood is considered ideal for having children. However, as people cross middle adulthood and continue aging, there is a decline in fertility. In women, menopause occurs by the age of fifty and marks the end of fertility. Men do not lose their fertility entire, even after crossing middle adulthood, however, a gradual decline in testosterone levels and sperm count does occur.
Cognitive Development
For long psychologists held the belief that intelligence peaks during early adulthood, continues to decline during middle adulthood, and finally takes a drastic downward turn by late adulthood. David Wechsler wrote that “the decline of mental ability with age is part of the general senescent process of the organism as a whole” (Wechsler, 1958). However, according to numerous studies, aging does not mean cognitive decline, which includes both intelligence and memory. For instance, people retain autobiographical memories throughout adulthood and even into late adulthood. Studies also show that there a steady decline in fluid intelligence, the ability to reason abstractly and logically, during middle adulthood that progresses as people continue aging. However, there is no decline in crystallized intelligence, the ability to accumulate factual knowledge and skills, over the lifespan. Thus, some intellectual abilities, such as mental speed, may decline during and after middle adulthood, while others, such as being able to solve practical problems, remain the same (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2001).
Social and Personal Development
The milestones of social development can be linked to chronological age. According to theorists such as Erikson and Levinson, adulthood can be described in terms of distinct stage. At the onset early adulthood, people have already achieved a sense of identity and begin seeking closer social relationships. At the onset of middle adulthood, people begin seeking intimacy, therefore, they get married and form meaningful close friendships. However, since people lead a diverse lifestyle depending on the culture they belong to, they can also take different social development paths. Depending on their culture and the environment surrounding them, the age at which critical events take place during adulthood, such as getting the first job, getting married, having children, and so on, can vary, and this influences the social development of an adult. Fate also affects the social development of people and can change their life in the form of chance encounters (Bandura, 1982). According to researchers, people also become more generative during adulthood (Newman & Newman, 2011), where they wish to contribute to the welfare of a new generation, whether in the community, at home, or at work.
Late Adulthood (Old Age) and End of Life (Death)
The process of aging accelerates once people enter late adulthood, during their sixties and seventies, and a variety of changes take place during this last stage of the lifespan.
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Although cognitive abilities, namely intelligence and memory, do not directly deteriorate with aging. However, two neurocognitive factors can cause memory to decline during adulthood. Performance on cognitive tasks depends considerably on sensory acuity, mainly eyesight and hearing, and since their sensory acuity is impaired, older people do not perform well on cognitive tasks. The second factor that impairs the cognitive performance of older people, especially their ability to remember things, is reduced neural speed. Older people take more time to process information because of their slow nervous system. Even though fluid intelligence declines in late adulthood, older adults can maintain crystallized intelligence, if they read books, magazines, and newspapers (Cunningham & Stanovich). Dying brain cells and a slowing nervous system often result in certain mental disorders in older adults. 10% of the elderly population suffers from dementia, a disorder that causes severe cognitive impairment. Typically, dementia occurs because of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which increasingly destroys brain cells, resulting in memory loss and other symptoms.
Social and Personal Development
People gain a sense of integrity during late adulthood, where they begin feeling that their life has been worthwhile. In order to enjoy a sense of self-fulfillment and serenity during late adulthood, people must resolve their early crisis in life. If they do not, they will feel desperate, hopeless, and regretful during late adulthood. As people reach late adulthood and continue aging, the way they perceive and manage time tends to change. They begin seeing their time in the world as limited; they stop concerning themselves about the future, and focus on enjoying their present life. Older adults no longer seek social contacts, and are least concerned about educational and/or job opportunities. They begin spending time with a selective number of people, mostly with closest family members and close friends (Burdick, 2005).
Dying and Death
One of the unique things about human beings is that they know they are going to die. According to Kübler-Ross, while coping with the knowledge that they are going to die, people go through five stages, namely denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance (Whyte, 1997). However, these stages are not experienced by everyone, nonetheless, every human being has a limited life span and eventually everyone dies.
Conclusion
Often biological, cognitive, and sociological aspects of development are separated from each other. However, it must be kept in mind that that the way people develop physically, the way they think, and the way they interact socially with others are all interconnected, as was explored in this paper. Although chronological aging can be denied or avoided, psychological aging, i.e. how old we feel, can also make a huge difference in how we age and develop throughout these stages of the lifespan, along with all the other factors mentioned.
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