Abstract
The main aim of this study is to conduct a research about the artificial methods of storing water in California while considering all the financial characteristics. This research will include two artificial (Manmade) methods of storing water in the state of California which will include; surface water such as Cisterns, Dams and aqueduct. Underground water will include pipelines, aquifers, canals and reservoirs.
Introduction
California’s water management system is arguably among the most innovative and complex artificial methods of storing water in the world. In California, colossal amounts of water are confined, stored, and then delivered through manmade features to serve environmental and agricultural needs. Groundwater is widespread and abundant and the effective management has rapidly become critical to protecting quality of California’s groundwater supplies. Moreover, over the years, various strategies have been implemented to address the management and challenges of groundwater (Hanak 78).
The Legislature in California has a coherent strategy of addressing the challenges of the state water in the region. In, 2009, the California Legislature took a significant initiative of addressing all the challenges associated with water by filing a $11.4 billion water bond to address governance of the delta and the diversion of water. With land area of 100 million acres and over 38 million people, California is the third largest and most populous state in the country (Bauer 268). On average, ground water resources in California supply almost 35% of all urban water demands. Its water storage and delivery infrastructure is well designed to address the unpredictability that of natural calamities by contributing effective ground water management that provides surface water local sources that supply water (Lawrence 312).
Analysis
Water storage in California is a significant tool in California’s water system. It captures lower-value water precisely for higher-value uses later. This storage mainly aids water supply, hydropower, flood protection and recreational uses. In addition, they help in regulating downstream water and the in supplying the flow of cold water for aquatic life. California has two large water delivery systems; the federal Central Valley Project (CVP) and the state Water Project (SWP). The CVP which is operated by the United States Bureau of Reclamation, supplies water for over two million consumers and over three million acres of farmland, while the SWP that is operated by the California Department of Water Resources supplies water to 755,000 acres of irrigated farmland and to over 25 million Californians. California has close to 200 surface storage reservoirs. These reservoirs have a capacity of 10,000 acre-feet and more for a storage capacity of over 41 MAF. Additionally, there are also other small reservoirs which are less than 10,000 acre-feet that are used in managing water for numerous uses.
Seasonal water storage; Close to 9 million acre-ft of water is stored during the wet season and later used in the dry season in normal years. In California’s dry summer, water is use is highest and so human use and irrigation consumes a lot of this water. Approximately, 3-6 maf is held in groundwater basin while 5-8 maf is held in surface reservoirs. The amount of water stored pretty much depends on the length and also the intensity of droughts.
Underground Water
- Reservoirs
During Governor Schwarzenegger’s tenure, a projecting costing $2.3 to $3.2 billion was initiated to invest in new reservoirs that would increase the supply of water and support the ecosystem in California. The annual costs for maintenance, operations and power were estimated at $11 to $20 million. Primarily, these estimates were based on feasibility tests and studies which included capital costs for engineering, construction, environmental compliance and administration cost. These reservoirs are over 20 million acre fit. The identified benefits of these reservoirs are that site reservoirs add more flexibility to the water management system of the state and these could provide many benefits including;
- Improved Delta water quality
- Enhanced water supply reliability for environmental and agricultural uses in the urban areas
- Lessening of snowpack storages basically lose because of change in climate
- Ecosystems are restored in the Sacramento River
- In the Central Valley, it contributes to flood damage reduction
Aquifers
An aquifer is a ground-water reservoir that is composed of rock or sediment which is sufficiently permeable and saturated with water to yield water to wells. In California, there are numerous aquifers covering over 200,000 square miles in the arid west. They are estimated at $1 billion and their annual cost of maintenance is $46 to $47 million. These storage facilities provide water to thousands of homes especially in the South California. For instance, the Las Posas Basin Aquifer storage and recovery project which is approximately fifty miles northwest of Los Angeles was built at $15 million dollars and its ground level is at 300 feet. It holds 100 billion gallons ready to distribute with a pump across the southern region. Though this particular aquifer is beneficial to many people, one of its drawbacks is that the pumps used to pump water can only be used for a short period of time and only longer in case of an emergency, though at an additional cost (Babcock 212).
Surface Water
Dams
Surface water storage facilities include dams, cisterns and aqueduct. There are hundreds of these facilities in California and they mainly store water for long term purposes such as, storing water for future irrigation, drinking water and for aquatic life. Dams in the State of California occupy over 2 million acre-fit with a storage capacity of 15 maf. The cost of constructing these dams cost about $400 million dollars and their maintenance cost is at 15 million annually. These dams hold 40 billion gallons of water ready to distribute with a pump to various regions across the state.
Cisterns
Cisterns are available in all sizes and shapes.
Watering rating; this vessel is designed to hold enough water and be able to maintain watertight rating. Normally, cisterns are 12 foot long and they can hold up to 1000 gallons of water. In San Diego for instance, many cisterns have been constructed by the state government. For instance, cisterns aboveground systems are limited in size to 10,000 to 15,000 gallons. These cisterns cost the state government $1 billion dollars to construct them in strategic places within the state particularly in the water catchment areas. Their annual maintenance cost is $14 million dollars. These cisterns provide clean water across the state to thousands of homes that do not have piped water.
Cisterns ought to have sufficient storage capacity in order to carry various households by extended interlude of low rainfall. Cisterns in California have been constructed from various material including cinderblock, cast-in-place reinforced and concrete set with plastered and a mortar cement on the inside.
Cost of pumps and other machines used in the process of storing water
California has spent over $1 billion in purchasing, and putting into place pipes in various water storage facilities. However, although these pipe and machinery are found to be effective, they are drawbacks associated with them. For instance,
Breaking Down – sometimes during construction or while transporting water, machinery usually breakdown and this leads to delay in work, lateness and extra cost is incurred in repairing them.
Leakage – more often due to tear or ware or usual circumstances, pipes hold excess water which breaks them up and these results to leakage. Leakage causes a lot of inconveniences; one of the results is that water does not reach all regions as expected.
Contamination – Much of the water that passes through these pipes and machinery is contaminated and therefore is unsafe for drinking. It should therefore be treated first to avoid breeding harmful bacteria (Shuck 345).
Surface Water and Underground water Management
Surface water and underground water play an important role in providing reliable water supply in various areas in California that have limited surface and underground water supplies. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern and Northern California has recently performed an assessment on underground water. This assessment analyzes use of groundwater and surface water and it shows that 40% of all the annual water needs in California can be solved through proper supply of water which can be done through proper water storage systems.
Current projects/proposals as well as its cost/benefit analysis
There are ongoing projects in California at the moment that is aimed at increasing volumes of water in the state to facilitate growth and development in the State. These projects are in various counties and they include; constructing both service water and under water facilities to increase volumes of water. A lot water is needed for various purposes in the state including, domestic and large-scale purposes such as irrigation.
Cost – These projects are estimated at $50 billion dollars after completion. This means that, in every storage facility, an extra one is constructed. All expenses incurred in these projects will be acquired from state government particularly the ministry of water and Agriculture. Under this department, machinery will also be provided and labour too.
Maintenance cost – this project’s maintenance cost is estimated at $1 billion annually. This will be inclusive of all expenses incurred in developing, planning and facilitating the ongoing project. In addition, California must ensure the quality standards and public health concerns are met. This includes all measures necessary to initiate all activities regarding the project. In addition, Close to 30 million acre-ft of water will be stored during the wet season and later used in the dry season in normal yea
rs. In California’s dry summer, water is use is highest and so human use and irrigation consumes a lot of this water. Approximately, 3-6 maf is held in groundwater basin while 5-8 maf is held in surface reservoirs. This criterion is what will guide this project in making rough estimates of the measurement and cost (Green 212).
Disadvantages of the pumps and other machines used in the process of storing water in California
There are many disadvantages and drawbacks associated with pumps and other machinery that are used in the process of storing water. First, just like any other machines and equipment, pumps and other machines used in the process of storing water are prone to breaking down and failing at times. Pumps and pimps for instance have failed to deliver water to various areas because of their poor quality. Secondly, certain mechanisms have also played part in failing this process, such as leakages, and forms of contamination.
Secondly, wrong estimates are a huge drawback in efficient water storage processes. Moreover, wrong estimates have been used to construct massive water projects and as a result, they have collapsed or failed in delivering the purpose. Therefore, it is of great importance to considered using the best and well designed machines and tools in water storage processes.
Conclusion
The water management system in California is keen on delivering good and standard services. Water supply is one of the key and crucial elements that California State puts emphasis on, water is life and we all need water in our daily lives. Water storage projects in California are aimed at providing clean fresh water to its residents always through piped water. As seen from the above analysis, water projects entail so much, from the junior unit to the senior unit and to the consumers. This study has conducted a thorough research about the artificial methods of storing water in California while considering all the financial characteristics. Its water storage and delivery infrastructure is well designed to address the unpredictability of natural calamities by effecting ground water management that provides surface water to local sources that supply water. Both surface water and underground water facilities serve the rightful purpose in California in providing clean water to its residents.
References
Babcock, Roger W, and Raymond Walton. Ahupuaʻa [electronic Resource]: World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008, May 12-16, 2008, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2008. Print.
Bauer, Nancy. The California Wildlife Habitat Garden: How to Attract Bees, Butterflies, Birds, and Other Animals. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, 2012. Print.
Green, Dorothy. Managing Water: Avoiding Crisis in California. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. Internet resource.
Hanak, Ellen. Managing California's Water: From Conflict to Reconciliation. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California, 2011. Print.
Lawrence, David G. California: The Politics of Diversity. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2013. Print.
Shuck, Oscar T. History of the Bench and Bar of California: Being Biographies of Many Remarkable Men, a Store of Humorus and Pathetic Recollections, Accounts of Important Legislation and Extraordinary Cases, Comprehending the Judicial History of the State. Clark, N.J: Lawbook Exchange, 2007. Print.
