International development (ID) project managers have to deal with a number of significant challenges in their work, ranging from infrastructure issues in underdeveloped countries to social development issues (Singer 2007: 84). Such challenges can sometimes lead to project failure. Nevertheless, problems that result in project failures can frequently be attributed to organizational and structural issues, rather than technical ones (Brinkerhoff, 1999: 350). Therefore, in order to minimize the impact of such problems and transform challenges into new opportunities, managers of international development projects need to use proven, modern techniques of project and stakeholder management (Richardson, et al 2015:12). Just like any other international project, such as one in the IT or construction sector, an ID project is generally defined as one that is temporary in nature, as well as one that has a clear beginning and end. Such projects are also intended to produce a specific result (or results), such as a particular service or product. Furthermore, government agencies, NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) or international development agencies are often involved in the development and/or implementation of an ID project (Hénon 2014: 110). The goal of an ID project can be to build infrastructure, introduce utilities (water, electricity, Internet, etc.), enhance agricultural production, protect the environment, reduce societal poverty or introduce democracy (Sawant, 2010: 1037). ID projects differ from ordinary international projects because the latter generally do not receive funding from multilateral international agencies. Furthermore, non-developmental international projects can be carried out in developed nations as well as undeveloped nations. This paper will examine the problems that managers of ID projects face in an international setting and possible solutions they can apply to such problems.
Challenges for ID Projects
As mentioned above, many scholars have pointed out the fact that problems in ID project management are frequently associated with institutional issues, rather than technical challenges (Rajablu, 2015: 111). A high rate of ID project failure in any organization is often related to poor project design and poor planning, which in turn are frequently a consequence of inadequate manager knowledge, data and skill. Although a lack of a common language among the managers, team members and various stakeholders can also play a role in project failure (Welch & Welch 2008: 351).
Nevertheless, it is important to note that standard approaches to project management can (and definitely should) be used during the creation and implementation of any ID project (Harmon & Williams 2014: 939). Because (despite some differences) there are many similarities between ID projects and standard international projects. Such similarities extend to things like risk management, use of human resources, procurement issues and overall stakeholder management.
Typical challenges faced by both ID projects and standard international projects include: complex and difficult to achieve project objectives, limited organizational resources, significant external risk factors and cultural differences among various members of multicultural project teams (Sura & Hagen 2004: 24). Challenges that are specific to ID projects include: the frequently intangible nature of the project in question, political and/or social conflict within the nation or nations in which the project is taking place (Petras & Veltmeyer 2007: 182), significant international political and/or economic factors, more difficult management of stakeholders and poorly defined roles for managers, supervisors and sponsors (Bhatia 2013: 5).
Stakeholder Management
One of the keys to managing an ID project is achieving fully realized and effective stakeholder management. There are four important parts to accomplishing this goal. The first is identification of stakeholders early on in the process, since this helps to define the overall planning and ensure that all relevant parties and issues are taken into account (Winters, 2014: 404). The second part is an analysis of the stakeholder interaction to assess its nature and its extent. The third part of the process is planning, in which the plans for managing the identified stakeholders are laid out and developed. The fourth part is the actual management process itself, which sees the plans that were created previously carried out and ensures that the results carefully monitored so that necessary adjustments (if any) can be made later (Ottier 2005: 146).
With regard to identification, the stakeholders can be the client or those within the organization (internal stakeholders). However, the stakeholders can also be those who are somehow affected by the project, even if only indirectly (external stakeholders). Therefore, a construction project for a dam in a developing country would have internal stakeholders, such as the construction company, the agency managing the project and those financing the dam. Nevertheless, it would also have a large number of external stakeholders, which could include local businesses that are affected by the construction process, homeowners or farmers dislocated when the dam is filled and local municipalities that will benefit from the water and electricity the dam will provide (Peels, R. & Develtere 2009: 335).
The Aswan High Dam in Egypt is a perfect example of this sort of situation. This project was carried out jointly by the Soviet Union and Egypt in the 1960s, and had a significant impact on Egypt's economy and society (Shokr 2009: 15). During this period, the Soviet Union was attempting to gain influence throughout the Middle East and Africa as a part of its Cold War against the United States Borzutzky & Berger 2010: 85). Therefore, the Soviets were eager to assist the Egyptian government in carrying out this massive public works project. Although Egypt was also glad to have the assistance of a major power in its efforts.
However, some of the effects that this dam had on stakeholders inside Egypt were not fully anticipated, such as the reduction of the natural yearly alluvial deposits of rich soil along the banks of the lower Nile (which impacted farming). Other stakeholders in this case would include have been groups concerned about archeological sites affected by the rising waters. Thus, UNESCO found itself involved in emergency efforts to rescue archaeological sites from the rising waters produced by the dam. In this particular example, it could be argued that the builders of the dam had not fully analyzed objectives, interests and priorities of the stakeholders (Abu-Zeid, M. & Saad 1993: 37). Otherwise, they would have been able to anticipate the negative consequences of this new dam on the Nile and taken steps to mitigate such effects.
During the analysis phase, the ID project manager seeks to find ways to satisfy the desires and interests of the various stakeholders. Nevertheless, in any major project it is impossible to please everyone while still moving forward with the project. Ideally, all stakeholders will get at least some of what they want in a given situation. However, even this is not always possible. This is why it is best to use tools that help to determine the degree to which a given stakeholder's interests should be taken into account in project decisions. Maylor's power interest matrix (2010) helps a project manager to determine the impact that a stakeholder house on a project and the degree of influence and attention that should be granted to each type of stakeholder.
Following identification and analysis, the planning stage of stakeholder management can begin. During this stage, plans are made for engaging with the various stakeholders in a way that makes them feel that they are a part of the process and that their concerns are addressed. An important issue at this juncture of the process is determining whether the relationship with one or more stakeholders will be based on partnerships, collaborations or some other approach (Bhanji & Oxley 2013: 291). Of course, some relationships with stakeholders are much less formal in nature, particularly if the stakeholders in question are only tangentially affected by the ID project.
Finally, in the actual management stage of stakeholder management, all the previous information, analysis and planning is brought into play and actually applied. There are a number of important facets to consider when it comes to managing stakeholders in an ID project. One effective approach to stakeholder management is the use of probing questions designed to gather information about the stakeholders and their views. The project manager should seek to learn precisely what motivates the stakeholders (this may differ from one stakeholder to the other), as well as how they view the approach and goals of specific project in question.
Obviously, some stakeholders may view a project much more favorably than others. Once again using the example of the Aswan High Dam, while the government of Egypt under then-President Abdul Nasser was very enthusiastic about the electrical power generation that would result from the construction of such a dam (Hughs 2000: 73), farmers downstream who would no longer receive the benefits of the Nile's enriching silt were less pleased. In fact, it later turned out that a sizable percentage of the electricity generated by the Aswan High Dam had to be used in the creation of fertilizer for these farmers.
Methods for ID project manager engagement with stakeholders can range from direct one-on-one communications (person-to-person discussions, telephone calls, emails) to more general communications (events, meetings, newsletters). A significant factor that must be considered when carrying out such stakeholder engagement activities is any possible language or cultural barrier. For international projects carried out in several different nations and cultures, misunderstandings are extremely common. This can be more than simply an inability to easily understand information or statements made by the organization or its members. Basic intentions, goals and underlying meanings can also get lost because of a lack of cultural context.
Success and Failure
The likelihood of any given ID project ultimately failing is surprisingly high. For some industries or sectors, it is astonishingly high. For example, according to the 2014 Standish group report on large software projects, only 16% of such projects can be considered an absolute success. 53% are considered failures. Even more generally, most organizations experience failure on a regular basis. There are a number of factors that can cause failure to occur in any ID project.
One of the leading causes of failure in ID projects is the tendency to underestimate the difficulty of the specific project. This often occurs when there has inadequate management planning and insufficient analysis of both the current situation, the desired end result and the preferable approach for achieving that result. Even in those instances where there was proper planning, failure is still possible from other causes. For instance poor communication among the various parties involved can often lead to failure. In major international projects, poor communication is frequently associated with language and translation problems.
Another issue that can lead to the failure of an ID project is poor project quality controls. While the project leaders may have laid out a clear plan and decided on the best approach for carrying out that plan, problems can still arise if there are no quality controls in place to ensure that the plan is being closely followed by those carrying it out. Not having a place robust risk management protocols is also a very common factor in ID project failure.
Again considering the example of Egypt's Aswan High Dam, while it is true that the overall project could be considered successful in accomplishing its goals, it failed in many other ways. The leaders and managers involved in the project certainly failed to take into account some of the negative side effects that the construction of this dam would have for the people of Egypt.
Recommendations
International project managers, particularly managers of ID projects, need to ensure that they address as many of the potential failure points in any ID project as possible before proceeding with that project. As pointed out above, careful analysis and planning are essential to reducing the chance of failure in any project. Even projects that are ultimately accomplished can (like the previously mentioned Aswan High Dam project in Egypt) can have unintended consequences that the planners did not fully anticipate or allow for. Careful planning makes this outcome somewhat less likely. Furthermore, in ID projects, there are frequently many more stakeholders (individuals and organizations) involved than there are in the average non-ID international project. This makes appreciating all the factors involved in the project and satisfying all the stakeholders even more difficult than it would normally be. Tying all of these various threads together into a single tapestry is a complex challenge, but essential if success is going to be achieved. The concerns of all of the stakeholders have to be addressed and the possible ramifications of the project carefully considered before proceeding. Language barriers, cultural misunderstandings and other similar possible problems have to be taken into account before the project begins, rather than after.
In conclusion, ID projects are becoming ever larger and more common on the international scene. As more and more governments, NGOs, individuals and corporations involved themselves in the often difficult process of carrying out an international project intended to enhance development in a developing world nation or community, understanding the factors that can lead to either success or failure of such a project is essential. Stakeholder identification and engagement is a key part of this process. Careful planning and implementation of ID projects by their managers can significantly increase the chance that such projects will not only be completed and successful, but that most of the stakeholders involved will either receive significant benefits from the project or will at least be satisfied with the results.
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